Экономика и менеджмент лесного хозяйства

Таблица 10. Средняя финансовая нагрузка частных лесовладельцев
Германии

Почти все лесные предприятия Германии (государственные и частные) по форме организации производства являются комплексными предприятиями, то есть ведут лесное хозяйство, занимаются лесопользованием, выполняют контрольные функции и функции управления лесами.

В зависимости от конечных экономических результатов и соотношения использования собственной рабочей силы и техники и привлекаемых сторонних организаций, часть объемов работ и мероприятий могут передаваться сторонним организациям.

Решение о привлечении сторонних организаций принимает руководитель предприятия. Работы в государственных лесхозах осуществляются организациями победителями конкурса на выполнение данных работ. Частные лесовладельцы, как правило, имеют долгосрочные договорные отношения со специализированными организациями.

Рынок работ и услуг в лесном хозяйстве Германии довольно развит. Отрасль обслуживает 7200 предпринимателей (рабочие − 23 тыс. чел.), которые оказывают специальные услуги (составление лесных планов, оценочная деятельность, составление различного рода заключений, управление лесами и т. д.) и выполняют производственные функции (валку леса, воспроизводство лесов, уход за лесными культурами и т. д.). Из них около 2500 − это высокомеханизированные предпринимательские структуры, имеющие 1000 харвестеров и 3000 форвардеров.

Финансирование государственных лесхозов осуществляется в сметном порядке из средств федеральных земель. Выручка, полученная государственным лесхозом от реализации древесины, поступает в доход госбюджета земли. При выполнении плана по реализации древесины часть средств остается в распоряжении лесхоза. Если план перевыполняется, то лесхоз получает дополнительное бюджетное финансирование. Такая схема финансовых отношений существует, например, в Баварии.

Таблица 11. Средние
экономические показатели
работы частных предприятий
Германии

Объем финансирования зависит от многих факторов. Например, в Баварии он составляет около 400 евро/га в год и в последние годы имеет тенденцию к снижению (ежегодно на 2−3%).

В хозяйственной деятельности государственных лесхозов широко используется аутсорсинг. Как правило, лесные предприятия не имеют в штате обслуживающий персонал (водителей, уборщиц, охранников и работников других категорий).

Собственники небольших по площади частных лесовладений практикуют передачу функций управления лесами лесохозяйственным производствам, ведение бухгалтерского учета − специализированным структурам либо физическим лицам, имеющим специальное образование и опыт работы в этой сфере деятельности.

Производственно-финансовое планирование на лесных предприятиях комплексно учитывает лесохозяйственную деятельность, которая обычно сопряжена только с расходами, и лесозаготовительную, имеющую доходную часть. Общий финансовый результат рассчитывается в евро на гектар и евро на кубический метр. Наличие специального лесохозяйственного, лесотехнического или лесоэкономического образования является необходимым условием для приема на работу на соответствующую должность в государственный лесхоз. Это требование справедливо не только для руководящего состава, но и для рядовых работников. Заработная плата рабочего в лесу составляет 30−35 евро/ч, заработная плата руководителя лесхоза − 3,5−4,1 тыс. евро/мес.

В государственной политике в области финансирования лесного хозяйства отчетливо прослеживается тенденция принятия государством части расходов на ведение частного и кооперативного лесного хозяйства с целью поддержания лесов в здоровом состоянии.

В среднем финансовыми государственными органами выделяется до 100 евро/га в год частным и (или) корпоративным хозяйствам.

Такая финансовая поддержка хотя и сопряжена с дополнительным документооборотом и отчетностью, тем не менее имеет существенное значение и влияет на конечные экономические показатели частных предприятий.

Не меньшее значение для поддержания финансовой устойчивости лесных предприятий имеет установленная организация лесопользования, особенность которой заключается в том, что лесопользователь может заготавливать те насаждения (и в том объеме), на которые в данный момент есть спрос на рынке круглых лесоматериалов.

Это пример практической реализации одной из особенностей экономической организации лесного хозяйства − «производство на склад», когда не пользующаяся спросом древесина остается на корню в ожидании благоприятной рыночной конъюнктуры.

Такой подход согласуется с принципами устойчивого лесопользования и требованием соблюдения расчетной лесосеки. Последний показатель имеет не только лесохозяйственное, но и экономическое значение, поскольку ставка налогообложения дифференцируется по уровню использования расчетной лесосеки.

Несмотря на наличие развитой системы менеджмента и экономической организации лесного хозяйства и лесопользования, существование различных форм собственности на леса, экономическое положение в этом секторе экономики оставляет желать лучшего. Наличие большого количества мелких лесных хозяйств, частной формы собственности объективно не позволяют им работать с прибылью. Как правило, большинство государственных предприятий убыточны.

Исследования показали, что в Германии прибыль от этого вида экономической деятельности можно получить, имея лесные площади от 200 га. При этом средним нормальным результатом рентабельности для лесных предприятий считается 2−4%.

Особое место в лесной политике занимает институт государственной финансовой поддержки в виде субвенций частных лесных предприятий. Эта деятельность регулируется федеральным лесным законом.

Оказывая финансовую поддержку, государство преследует следующие цели: сохранение защитных лесов, их ресурсного потенциала, содействие лесохозяйственному производству, условиям труда и сбыта лесной продукции.

Основные виды деятельности, которые финансируются из бюджета государства: лесовосстановление и лесоразведение, строительство лесных дорог, создание лесохозяйственных объединений и союзов, борьба с вредителями и болезнями леса, улучшение и рационализация при производстве и продвижении на рынке продукции лесозаготовок и др.

Каждая федеральная земля имеет свою систему управления государственными лесами, которая учитывает исторические аспекты лесного хозяйства, экономические, социальные и экологические условия. Несмотря на различные системы и формы управления лесным хозяйством, получение разрешения для граждан на заготовку древесины для собственных нужд в разрешительных органах занимает не более пяти минут.

Forestry Management in Germany

Continuous reforms in the forestry sector in Russia, find its own model of development of the forest sector need to learn foreign experience to adapt some of its elements that are suitable for local conditions.

Homeland forestry as an economic activity is Germany. Forest static as the doctrine of income forestry and sustainable forest management as a form of controlled forestry emerged and developed in this country in the XVIII century. The first mention of sustainable agriculture are found in the XVI century in one of the Saxon prescriptions of the forest, and the expression "sustainable forest management" was first applied HS background Karlovic in 1713. During the XVIII and XIX centuries of sustainable forest management developed in the works of German scientists: background Beckmann (1757), Oetelta (1768), Stahl (1773), Hartig (1795) and Heyer (1841). Born in Germany, the principle of sustainable forest management has been recognized around the world the fundamental law of management of the forest.

Modern forestry Germany

Today, the forest sector in Germany is represented by more than 185 thousand. Companies, which employ about 1.3 million people.; annual working capital of about 181 billion euros.

Sources of data on forests in Germany

Table 1. The forest sector in Germany

The most complete and officially recognized data on the forests of Germany provide information obtained in their inventory: defined quantity and quality of forests, their analysis is conducted.

According to the Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture, the first forest inventory was carried out in Germany in 1878. Then it was carried out every ten years until 1937. After the Second World War and the division of Germany into East and West methods of inventory in the GDR and the FRG differ.

East Germany increasingly focused on the approach of the former Soviet Union, and held the first post-war inventory in the years 1956-1957. It was based on the method of sample plots. Subsequent inventory covered the period from 1961 to 1970.

From 1970 to 1990, in the forestry sector of the former GDR there was a data bank of quantitative and qualitative indicators of forest resources on various forms of ownership (public, private and church).

In 1961, Germany was the inventory on the basis of the survey forestries. Accuracy and reliability of this method, of course, were low. German first forest inventory using the method of sample plots was carried out from 1986 to 1988.

After the unification of West and East Germany in a unified German state became necessary to create a single database of forests in Germany. In this regard, the need has arisen Federation and the Federal land decided to hold the first after German unification federal forest inventory, using the method of sample plots.

The legal basis for this action was the Federal Forest Act (1975) and adopted him (§ 41, paragraph "a") an amendment (1984), detailing the procedure and uniform methods of inventory. Before the beginning of the inventory was developed by its procedure, produces a variety of regulations and instructions.

The purpose of the national inventory was to obtain information on the quantitative and qualitative state of forests, which then had to serve as a basis for the planning of forestry production, control and optimize the management of forests at the federal and regional levels.

Organization of forest inventory

Organization of forest inventory carried out by the Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture. It was developed uniform methods of preparation, accounting and data processing. The Ministry refused to use the information obtained by means of aerial photography and space vehicles, in favor of the data obtained by measuring and enumerative. His authority to direct the process of forest inventory transferred to the Federal Ministry of Research Institute of Forest Ecology in Eberswalde.

For the whole territory of the inventory of forest land has been divided into squares network (quarterly network 4 x 4 km), followed by a breakdown in the selected (150 x 150 m). Parties to individual network of squares (forest districts) at the request of the federal states could be reduced with a view to obtaining more detailed information. A total of 45 thousand laid. Grid squares. In the corners of stands have been laid relaskopicheskie platform with a variable radius of 1 to 25 m. Thus, there was uniformly randomly spaced sites.

The direct execution of works and activities in the forest was assigned to the regional forest management bodies. Institute Eberswalde received information on forests, evaluate them, and the group formed a data bank on Forests country. Collection of data on the state of forests was carried out from 2001 to the beginning of October 2002; their processing and testing was completed two years later, in 2004m. As a result of applying the method of the error plots for all forests in Germany (11 million hectares) was 0.7%. It was found that in Germany there are about 8.7 billion trees whose trunk diameter at breast height of the person 7 cm.

Here is a brief description of the forests.

Categories of forests

Table 2. Distribution of forest land by Category

forests, ha

The overall picture of land use in Germany is as follows: 31% of the total area - land of forests, 53% - of agricultural land, 16% - land settlement, transport and so on.

The data show the last forest inventory (Table. 2), which is 1/3 of the entire area of ​​Germany refers to the land intended for forest management (Forest land, if Russian interpretation). Forest occupies about 11.1 million hectares, about 7.2 million hectares certified to the PEFC system and 570 thousand. Ha - the system FSC.

Given the high population density in the country, we can say that one hectare of forest accounts for about seven residents. In neighboring countries, the figure is somewhat lower: Switzerland - 6 in Austria - about 2 in France - about 4 in Sweden - and in Finland 0.3 - 0.2 pers. / Ha.

The distribution of forests across the country is uneven. The highest percentage of forest cover, above the average in the country, was in the following federal states: Rhineland - Palatinate (42.1), Hesse (41.7), Saarland (38.3), Baden - Württemberg (38.1), Bavaria (36.3), Brandenburg, Berlin (35.3) and Thuringia (32.0).

Distribution by type of ownership

After the unification of East and West Germany took place and the present time substantial changes in the ratios of different forms of forest ownership.

Currently the private property (2 million private forest owners) is about 43.6% of the forests. The area of ​​private forests is twice the area of ​​corporate forests and a half times - forest area owned by federal states (Table. 3).

The area of ​​private forest is unevenly distributed on federal lands. The largest share of private forests in Bavaria (54.2%), North Rhine - Westphalia (67%), Lower Saxony (58.3%) and Schleswig - Holstein (50.4%). The area per one private forest owners are usually negligible. Only 11.9% of all private forest enterprises have an area greater than 1,000 hectares, more than half (57%) have an area not exceeding 20 hectares, 8% of forest owners have forest area from 20 hectares to 50, 6% - from 50 to 100, 5% - 100 to 200, 7% - from 200 to 500 and 5% - from 500 to 1,000.

As a rule, small forest owners receive support in the form of advice and services for the management of forests by the state forestry enterprises and forest management bodies of federal lands. The majority of forest users have along with forest land agricultural land.

State forests, owned by the federal lands occupy 29.6% of the forest area. The average area of ​​forest enterprises - more than 1,000 hectares. The largest area of ​​forests owned by the federal land in Saarland (48.2%), the lowest - in North Rhine - Westphalia (14.3%). A 19.5% (2,160,189 ha) of forest in Germany is in the corporate (municipal) property. About 90% of the forest enterprises that form the property has an area of ​​100 hectares, 82% - more than 200 hectares, about 65% - more than 500 hectares and only 44% have a forest area of ​​more than 1000 hectares. The greatest number of enterprises of the corporate form of property located in the central part of Germany in the Rhineland - Palatinate, and in the southwest, in the Saarland. The share of the federal accounts for only 3.7% of the forest (409 340 ha). This is mainly forests of military significance, as well as forests growing along highways.

Speaking about the forms of forest ownership, it should be noted the forest have now received the special status of certain historical events of the XX century. We are talking about the forests that were before May 9, 1945 in a private property. After the Second World War as a result of land reform in the GDR, they were expropriated and became the property of the state. After the reunification of Germany (1990), these forests (about 3.2 million hectares), with located on forest land facilities and various buildings, came under the care of a specially created management structure with the aim of re-privatization of real property by way of sale. Achieving this goal it was entrusted to a specially created agency for custody of state property of the former GDR.

Despite the apparent high yield use of forests, currently about 3.0% of forests remain unclaimed buyers. Commercial use and management of forests is carried out by specially authorized bodies of management of federal lands and created a limited liability company, which is engaged in the assessment and management of these forests.

The distribution of species and age classes

Table 3. Distribution of forests on federal lands and forms

Property ha

In the forests of Germany grows trees of 72 species, 26 of which are deciduous and coniferous 7 are used for industrial purposes. Softwood occupy 57.6% of the forest area of ​​the country, deciduous - 40.1%, the remaining area of ​​forest land - about 2.3% - falls on glades and wasteland. This distribution in favor of coniferous plantations are the result of several decades ago, forest policy, which is focused on the cultivation of forestry monocultures of conifers. Experience has shown the error of the chosen path.

The largest area takes spruce (28.2%), followed by pine (23,3%). Beech takes 14.8% of forested land, the share of oak falls 9.6%.

Intermarry distribution of forests across the country is uneven. This is partly due to climatic conditions. For example, in the north of the country dominated by pine (in Brandenburg and Berlin - 73%, in Saxony - Anhalt - 46.6%, in Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania - 39.5%, in Lower Saxony, Hamburg and Bremen - 30.2 %). Hardwood grow in the central part of the country (in the Saar - 71.5%, in the Rhineland - Palatinate - 57.2% in Hesse - 55.6%, in North Rhine - Westphalia - 51.7%) and the Baltic Sea (Schleswig - Holstein - 60.9%). Spruce plantations occupy the southern part of Germany (44.6% in Bavaria, Thuringia 42.3%, 37.7% in Baden - Württemberg, 35.3% in Saxony).

There is a link between forest enterprises of various forms of ownership of forests and their species composition.

Corporate forests are mostly deciduous (beech - 21.3%, oak - 13.9%). In private forests grow mainly coniferous forests (63.1%), which holds 31.8% of spruce, pine - 26.2%. Beech takes only 11.2%. A similar distribution of species composition observed in the forests subject to re-privatization. In state forests coniferous forests occupy 59.5%, deciduous - 40.5%.

The age structure of forests is characterized by a relatively large proportion of the third age class (41-60 years) - 21%, and the second (21-40 years) - 17% and the fourth (61-80 years) - 15%. This is due to significant cut through, which took place during the Third Reich, it is sure to fulfill the conditions of repair, mass insect damage and the lack of manpower after World War II, as well as the gradual onset of the post-war work of reforestation. From the sixth to the ninth grade age there is a significant reduction in forest areas - from 9.5 to 2.3%, respectively.

The purpose of the national forest policy in the field of afforestation and reforestation is to increase the proportion of hardwood plantations - in order to avoid various risks associated with the deterioration of forest land, mass outbreaks of pests and disease activity and improve the environment in the forest.

Growing stock

Compared with the volume of timber resources, to fix the previous inventory, timber resources in the forests of Germany increased significantly. Increase the use of wood exceeds 39%. The results of the forest inventory showed that the total supply of main kinds of timber in the forests of Germany is 3.4 billion m3, or about 320 m3 / ha.

Logging activities in relation to the growth of 54% in Lower Saxony, where large areas of young forest, and 95% in Baden - Wuerttemberg, where forests have been repeatedly damaged windfall in recent decades.

Table 4. Stocks of wood on

root in some European

Countries

If we consider the total stock in terms of distribution of forest of different ownership, the picture is as follows. The share of private forests account for about 50% of government - 30%, corporate - 20% of the total stock of wood, with more than half of it - spruce, 20.8% are pine, 17.3% - by beech. Fir has the highest average stock - 480 m3 / ha, followed by spruce - 404 m3 / ha, followed by beech - 352 m3 / ha. The highest rate of growing stock - 403 m3 / ha from Bavaria, from Baden - Württemberg - 365 m3 / ha. The lowest rates in Brandenburg (239 m3 / ha) and Saxony - Anhalt (237 m3 / ha).

Private forest owners with an area of ​​100 hectares of forest to plantations have a margin of 338 m3 / ha. Lowest growing stock in state forests - 227 m3 / ha.

The following is a comparative table of the total timber reserves and growing stock of 23 countries (tab. 4).

The presented in the table can be seen that among the European countries, Germany occupies a leading position in terms of total growing stock and of stock per hectare. However, it should be noted that about 2% of the wood stock, or 11.5 m3 / ha, represented the dead wood, which is almost two times higher than in the forests of Austria (6.1 m3 / ha according to the forest inventory 2000-2002 years).

Stocks of dead wood in the forests of various different forms of ownership. For example, the most important indicator of the forest enterprises are state-owned - 15.5 m3 / ha, in corporate forests it is 13.7 m3 / ha, and in private - 8.4 m3 / ha. Federal State of Baden - Wuerttemberg is leading in stocks of dead wood in the forests - 19.1 m3 / ha. The lowest supply of such wood - 12.9 m3 / ha - in the forests of Bavaria.

National authorities attach great importance to dead wood, mindful of the fact that it is an important part of the forest ecosystem, the habitat of many species of insects and animals.

Last inventory classifies all dead wood into five categories: wood lying on the ground, standing on the top (all wood) hung trees, stumps and wood residues on red tape.

The forest road network

Table 5. The density of the road network in the forests of Germany, m / ha

The use of forests for economic purposes, as well as for cultural, health and recreation, is directly related to the density of the road network in the woods. Create an optimal road network in the forest management of forestry attaches particular importance, linking it with the general problem of forest development. Along with the inventory and inventory of forests is carried out of the road network. The inventory of forest road network are presented in Table. 5.

From the table it is clear that in Brandenburg, Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania the density of the road network is about 68 m / ha, in Saxony, Saxony - Anhalt and Thuringia - from 80 to 100 m / ha, mainly skidding portages.

When the inventory of the road network into account the following three types of roads: logging roads; Logging dies; road for active recreation (hiking, riding and cycling).

The total length of logging roads is 512 thousand. Km. Half of the road does not have a hard coating and 2/3 roads are presented year-round. In private forests the density of forest roads is 22 m / ha. In the new federal states density of forest roads is lower than in the old, and 28.6 and 54.4 m / ha, respectively. In the forests located in the highlands, the total density of the road network is reduced.

Skid trails occupy 653 thousand. Km.