The active articulator

tongue [17]= 12 apical + 1 cacuminal +

1 mediolingual + 3 backlingual;

lips [6]= 4 bi-labial + 2 labial;

glottis [1]= 1 glottal

6.2. the point of articulation:

the alveolar ridge [11]= 6 alveolar + 1 post-alveolar

+ 4 palato-alveolar;

the hard palate [1]= 1 palatal;

the soft palate /velum [3]=3 velar;

the teeth [4]= 2 dental + 2 interdental

4. The articulatory classification of English vowels.

1. The stability of articulation:

10 monophthongs: [i, e, ae, a, o, o:, u, a] + 2 diphthongoids [i:, u:] +

8 diphthongs + 2 triphthongs [ei, ai, oi, au,, ie]

2. The horizontal position of the tongue:

5 front + 2 front-retracted + 6 central + 2 backadvanced

+ 5 back

3. The vertical position of the tongue:

5 open broad + 3 open narrow +

2 mid broad + 4 mid narrow +

4 close broad + 2 close narrow

4. The lip position: 8 unrounded + 4 rounded

5. The length/duration: 6 short +1 tense + 5 long.

5. Modifications of English sounds in connected speech: reduction and its degrees.

Reduction is a historical process of weakening, short­ening or disappearance of vowel sounds in unstressed positions. Reduction reflects the process of lexical and grammatical changes.

I. Quantitative(колич.) reduction: only the quantity/length of a vowel sound. Eg.: you [ juː] [ ju ]; he долг\коротк

II. Qualitative reduction: the change of the quality of a vowel sound (both long and short) into the sounds [ə], [ɪ], [ʊ] in the unstressed position(s). Most vowels in weak forms are changed into [ə],. Eg.: you [ ju:] [jʊ]; he [ hi:] [ hɪ]; and [ænd] [ənd], etc.

III. Zero reduction: the loss of a vowel sound (sometimes together with a consonant sound) in the unstressed position(s) in rapid casual speech. zero realization. Eg.: him [ɪm]; would [wʊd]], [d]; and [ən], [n]; have [əv], [v], etc.

3. The third type is the elision of vowels in the unstressed position monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.

6. Modifications of English sounds in connected speech: assimilation, its types and kinds.

Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially simi­lar to the adjoining sound.

Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to: direction, degree of completeness, degree of stability.

Assimilation occurs in two different types: complete assimilation, in which the sound affected by assimilation becomes exactly the same as the sound causing assimilation, and partial assimilation, in which the sound becomes the same in one or more features, but remains different in other features.

the influence of the neighbouring sounds in english can act in a progressive (a), regressive (b) or double direction (c):

(a) when some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding sound, which remains unchanged, assimilation is called progressive e.g. sandwich (the consonant /d/ disappeared)
(b) when the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one assimilation is called regressive e.g. within the word combination /in them/ the alveolar n becomes dental
(c) means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds e.g. within the word /tree/ the sonorant /r/ is partly devoiced under the influence of the voiceless /t/ and the alveolar /t/ becomes post-alveolar before the post-alveolar /r/
_______________

(2) - according to its degree, a. can be complete (a) and incomplete (b)

(a) the two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one e.g. /cupboard/ or /less shy/
(b) the likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features e.g. /sweet/ (the sonorant /w/ is partly devoiced after the voiceless fortis /s/)

_______________

(3) - obligatory (a) and non-obligatory (b) assimilation

(a) e.g. a dental allophone of the alveolar /t/ should be used when it is followed by (inter)dental /voicess fricative/ or /voiced fricative/ as in /eighth/
(a) e.g. /ten minits/ -> /temminits/

If a sound changes with reference to a following segment, it is traditionally called "regressive assimilation"; changes with reference to a preceding segment are traditionally called "progressive".

Modification of the place of obstruction and the active organs of speech: Assimilation may take place within a word and also at word boundaries. The following three important cases should be noticed:

(a) The alveolar allophones of [t, d, n, 1, s, z] are replaced by the dental variants when immediately followed by the interden­tal [ð] or [Ө], eg

within a word: eighth, breadth, tenth; at word boundaries: Put that down! Read this!, on the desk

(b)The post-alveolar [t] and [d] are heard before the post-alveolar sonorant [r], eg

within a word: trip, true, trunk, dream, drink; at word boundaries: at rest, would read.

(c)The bilabial nasal [m] or the alveolar nasal [n] become labio-dental under the influence of immediately following labio-­dental fricatives [f, v], eg

within a word: triumph, comfort, infant; at word boundaries: come for me, ten forks.

Changes in the work of the vocal cords (voicing/devoicing):

Progressive voicing or devoicing is common in English.

(a) The sonorants [m, n, 1, w, r] are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless consonants [s, p, t, k, f,].

At word boundaries the sonorants [1, r, w] are slightly voiced if with the adjacent words they form a phrasal word or a rhyth­mic group, eg at last, at rest.

(b)Contracted forms of the verbs "is" and "has" may retain voice or be devoiced depending on the preceding consonants.

(c)The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the possessive suffix -'s or -s', the plural suffix -(e)s of nouns and of the third person singular present indefinite of verbs depends on the quali­ty of the preceding consonant.

(d) The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the suffix -ed of regular verbs also depends on the quality of the preceding con­sonant.

Changes in the Lip Position. Consonants followed by the sonorant [w] change their lip-position. They become lip-rounded in anticipation of [w], eg twinkle, quite, swan, language.

Changes in the Position of the Soft Palate. Nasal conso­nants may influence the adjacent plosive. Sometimes [d] changes into [n], eg handsome, handmade.

Changes in the Manner of the Release of Plosive Conso­nants. English plosives do not always have the third stage con­sisting of a sudden oral release of air. The main variants are:

(a) Incomplete plosion.

In the clusters of two plosives [pp, pb, bb, bp, tt, td, dd, dt,, kk, kg, gg, gk] where the position of the organs of speech is the same for both consonants, there is no separation of the organs of speech between the two plosives.

(b) Nasal plosion.

When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n] or [m] it has no release of its own, the so-called 'nasal' plosion is produced.

(c) Lateral plosion.

In the sequences of a plosive immediately followed by [1] the closure produced for the plosive is not released till after [1]. Be­fore [1] the release is made by a sudden lowering of the sides of the tongue, and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue with lateral plosion, eg please, cattle, black, candle.

7. Modifications of English sounds in connected speech: elision and epenthesis and their kinds.