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The manner of articulation and the type of
Theoretical Phonetics of the English Language
1. The main branches of experimental phonetics and the methods applied in them.
The levels of phonetics
1) The content level explores different materialforms of phonetic units;
2) The expression level studies speech as a
means of information transmission;
3) The functional level deals with the role of
phonetic units in communication.
the content level + the expression level = the material level
[studied by experimental phonetics ]: how the message formed in the brain is articulated by the speaker, how it is transmitted through air and how it is received by the listener‟s ear.
Articulatory phonetics studies how speech sounds are made(„articulated‟) by the vocal organs;
It describes the physiological processes occurring in the vocal tract in speech.
It overlaps with anatomy and physiology.
It is the most developed and well-studied branch of phonetics.
Methods
1) subjective/ perceptive:
direct observation
[Teacher↔Student]
2) objective/instrumental: Hand mirror; Laryngoscope; Photography; Artificial palate; Palatography; Electromyography; Electro-aerometer; Articulometer.
Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sound(frequency, quantity, intensity),as transmitted between mouth and earaccording to the principles of acoustics.
It uses only instrumental techniques.
1) kymograph/cymograph: an early instrument for recording vocal organmovements with a stylus which makes a recordon a rotating drum;
2) electrokymograph: an instrument recording the changes in oral and nasal airflow during speech.
3) sound spectrograph: an instrument for a visual representation of the acoustic features of speech sounds in the form of a 3D spectrogram.
4) oscillograph: an instrument for a graphic representation of thewave forms.
5) intonograph: a device for measuring the vocal cords tone, the average sound pressure, and
the duration and pausation of speech.
Auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speechsounds, as mediated by ear,
auditory nerve and brain. It is a less well-studied area of phonetics.
objective/instrumental methods:
1) speech synthesizer: an electrical device for generatingartificial speech signals;
2) text-to-speech synthesis: a technique in which written texts areautomatically transformed into their spokenequivalents;
3) audiometer: an electronic instrument for measuringthe sensitivity of hearing.
2. Phonology and methods of phonological investigation.
Phonology (functional phonetics) is the branch of phonetics that studies the
functional aspect of phonemes, syllable, accent, and intonation.
The methods of phonological investigation are used to distinguish onephoneme from another:
1) distribution is used to refer to the total set of linguistic contexts in which a phoneme
can occur
2) commutation/substitution is used to refer to a process of sound replacement to show contrastivity.
Distribution
1. contrastive: two allophones ofdifferent phonemesoccur in the samephonetic environment:
l ot- n ot: [l] – [n];
mou th -mou se: [ O] – [s];
2. complementary: two allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic environment: [t] and [th] are in complementary distribution, since the latter does not occur
after word-initial [s];
Substitution is the replacement of one speech sound byanother in the same position to determinewhich sounds belong to the same phoneme. Two words of which differ in meaning whenonly one phoneme is changed forma ‘minimal pair’: p in vs. b in, c o t vs. c u t. The kinds of minimal pairs are based on thenumber of articulatory features of theopposed sounds:
1) single – only 1 feature is different: mou th – mou s e: [O] interdental vs. [s] alveolar;
2) double – 2 features are different: thi n – thi ng: [n] apical, alveolar vs. [n] backlingual, velar;
3) triple – 3 features are different: b o x – b u cks: [o] back, open broad, rounded vs. [ ʌ ] central, mid broad, unrounded;
4) multiple – 4 and more features are different: sh ee p – sh i p: [i:] diphthongoid, front, close narrow, long vs. [i] monophthong, front-retracted, close broad, short.
3. The articulatory classification of English consonants.
2.The articulatory classification of English consonants [24]
1. The degree of noise: 17 noise, 7 sonorous
2. The work of the vocal cords: 9 voiceless, 8 voiced
3. The force of exhalation: 9 strong/fortis, 8 weak/lenis
4. The position of the soft palate: 21 oral, 3 nasal
The manner of articulation and the type of
obstruction: 9 occlusive= 6 plosive + 3 nasal; 13 constrictive = 9 fricative + 4 median; 2 occlusive-constrictive/affricate
6. The place of articulation:
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