Techniques of communicative teaching

According to R. Gower, D. Philips, S. Walters, "The aim of communication activities is to encourage purposeful and meaningful interaction between students.communicative tasks are designed so that students have a reason or a purpose for speaking: they are bridging an information or opinion gap; they are asking for or giving real information or finding out about the opinions of their fellow students. Not only are these activities motivating in the classroom, but they offer a challenge which mirrors real-life interaction" [14; 108].

Communicative teaching suggests pair work and group work activities. Pair work is sometimes referred to as open or closed depending on whether just one pair is speaking, usually across the class, to provide some sort of model for the others (open) or whether the whole class is divided into pairs and working simultaneously (closed). Frequently a closed pair activity is preceded by a small amount of open pair practice to get it going.

Another type of communicative activity is the mingle activity in which all the students stand up and move around talking in turn to the other students - so that pairs and small groups are being continually formed and re-formed.

Doing these communicative activities:

gives the students more valuable talking time. It gives them more of the time they require to practice the language than is possible when you are dealing with the class as a whole;

allows you to withdraw and monitor individual performances;

encourages rapport between students;

provides an opportunity for the students to co-operate with one another and learn to become independent of the teacher;

enables the students to invest much more of themselves in the lesson;

gives an opportunity for shy or unconfident students to participate whereas they would be reticent about contributing in front of the whole class;

provides a change in pace;

adds variety to a lesson.

The way the teacher use pair work and group work can depend on such factors as the experience and expectations of the students, their level, and whether they are in a monolingual or multilingual group.

It is important to remember that not all students are used to interactive activities in class. The teacher may have to introduce pair work and group work activities gradually, making sure the tasks are clearly defined, and pointing out the rationale and advantages of the approach. In a monolingual group it may be useful to discuss the purpose of such activities and to set up the first one or two in the mother tongue.

At lower levels tasks need to be limited, more structured and generally shorter than at higher levels. However, although lower levels will need more controlled practice than advanced students they will still need opportunities to express themselves freely, just as advanced levels will need some controlled practice.

This type of activity has a place in most types of lesson. Every opportunity should be taken for the students to talk to each other - when asking about unknown words, comparing their answers to tasks, correcting each other's work as well as in activities set up especially with pairs and groups in mind - practice dialogues, information gap activities, role plays, discussions and games, etc.

So, communicative teaching possesses techniques of intercourse activity (dialogue, brainstorming role plays and dramatization, debates, games, debates, projects, etc.).

Dialogue. A dialogue consists of a series of lead-response units. The significant feature of a lead-response unit is that the response part may, and usually does, serve in its own turn as a fresh inducement leading to further verbal exchanges, i. е.:

A response unit is a unit of speech between two pauses. It may consist of more than one sentence. But the most characteristic feature of a dialogue is that the lead-response units are closely connected and dependent on each other. The lead is relatively free, while the response depends on the first and does not exist without it.

Where is the book?

5. There, on the shelf [32; 168].

In teaching dialogue one should use pattern dialogues as they involve all features which characterize this form of speech.

There are three stages in learning a dialogue:

· receptive;

· reproductive;

· constructive (creative).

1. Pupils "receive" the dialogue by ear first. They listen to the dialogue recorded or reproduced by the teacher. The teacher helps pupils in comprehension of the dialogue using a picture or pictures to illustrate its contents. They listen to the dialogue a second time and then read it silently for better understanding, paying attention to the intonation. They may listen. to the dialogue and read it again, if necessary.

2. Pupils enact the pattern dialogue. We may distinguish three kinds of reproduction:

Immediate. Pupils reproduce the dialogue in imitation of the speaker or the teacher while listening to it or just after they have heard it. The teacher checks the pupils' pronunciation, and intonation in particular. The pupils are asked to learn the dialogue by heart for homework.

Delayed. After pupils have learned the dialogue at home, they enact the pattern dialogue, in persons. Before calling on pupils it is recommended that they should listen to the pattern dialogue recorded again to remind them of how it "sounds”.

Modified. Pupils enact the dialogue with some modifications in its. Contents. They change some elements in it. The more elements (main words and phrases) they change in the pattern the better they assimilate the structure of the dialogue:

6. Will you help me, sonny?

7. What shall I do, Mother?

8. Will you bring me a pail of water?

9. Certainly I will.

The use of pictures may be helpful. Besides pupils use their own experience while selecting the words for substitutions.

The work should not be done mechanically. Pupils should speak on the situation. As a result of this work pupils master the structure of the pattern dialogue (not only the contents), i. e., they can use it as a model for making up dialogues of their own, that is why pattern dialogues should be carefully selected.

The first two stages aim at storing up patterns in pupils' memory for expressing themselves in different situations, of course within the topics and linguistic material the syllabus sets for each. Form.

3. Pupils make up dialogues of their own. They are given a picture or a verbal situation to talk about. This is possible provided pupils have a stock of patterns, a certain number of phrases for starting a conversation, joining in, etc. They should use those lead-response units they have learned in connection with the situation suggested for a conversation.

At the third stage the choice of stimuli is of great importance, as very often pupils cannot think what to say, though they know how to say this or that. Therefore audio-visual aids should be extensively utilized.

In teaching dialogue the teacher uses pattern dialogues and should be sure that pupils go through the three stages from receptive through reproductive to creative, supply them with the subject to talk about.

In teaching speaking the problem is what form of speech to begin with, and what should be the relationship between monologue and dialogue. This problem may be solved in different ways. Some methodologists give preference to dialogic speech in teaching beginners, and they suggest that pupils learn first how to ask and answer questions which is mostly characteristic of a dialogue, and how to make up a short dialogue following a model. Others prefer monologic speech as a starting point. Pupils are taught how to make statements, how to combine several sentences into one utterance in connection with an object or a situation offered.

These approaches to the problem are reflected in school textbooks now in use. Some prefer to begin with dialogic speech. They start by teaching pupils how to ask various types of questions. For example:

The book is on the desk. The book isn ' t under the desk. Is the book on the desk? Yes, it is. (No, it isn ' t.) Is the book on the desk or under it? It ' s on the desk. Where ' sthe book? It ' s on the desk [33; 129].

As to the relationship between monologue and dialogue, it should vary from stage to stage in teaching speaking in schools. In the junior stage (5-6 forms) dialogic speech, the one which allows the teacher to introduce new material and consolidate it in conversation, must prevail. In the intermediate stage (7-8 forms) dialogue and monologue must be on an equal footing.

In the senior stage (9-10 forms) monologue speech must prevail since pupils either take part in discussion and, therefore, express their thoughts in connection with a problem or retell a text read or heard. To sum it up both forms of speech (monologue and dialogue) should be developed side by side with preference for the one which is more important for pupils' progress in learning a foreign language at a certain stage.

Pupils' speech in both forms may be of two kinds: prepared and unprepared. It is considered prepared when the pupil has been given time enough to think over its content and form. He can speak on the subject following the plan made either independently at home or in class under the teacher's supervision. His speech will be more or less correct and sufficiently fluent since plenty of preliminary exercises had been done before.

In schools, however, pupils often have to speak on a topic when they are not yet prepared for it. As a result only bright pupils can cope with the task. In such a case the teacher trying to find a way out gives his pupils a text which covers the topic. Pupils learn and recite it in class. They reproduce the text either in the very form it was given or slightly transform it. Reciting, though useful and necessary in language learning, has but little to do with speech since speaking is a creative activity and is closely connected with thinking, while reciting has to do only with memory. Of course, pupils should memorize words, word combinations, phrases, sentence patterns, and texts to "accumulate” the material and still it is only a prerequisite. The main objective of the learner is to be able to use the linguistic material to express his thoughts in the dialogue speech.

Brainstorming is a popular tool that helps students to generate creative solutions to a problem. It is particularly useful when there is a need to break out of stale, established patterns of thinking, so that you can develop new ways of looking at things. It also helps overcome many of the issues that can make group problem-solving a sterile and unsatisfactory process. Used with the team, it helps bring the diverse experience of all team members into play during problem solving. This increases the richness of ideas explored, meaning that students can find better solutions to the problems they face. What's more, because brainstorming is fun, it helps team members bond with one-another as they solve problems in a positive, rewarding environment. Brainstorming provides a freewheeling environment in which everyone is encouraged to participate. Quirky ideas are welcomed, and many of the issues of group problem-solving are overcome. All participants are asked to contribute fully and fairly, liberating people to develop a rich array of creative solutions to the problems they're facing. Brainstorming combines a relaxed, informal approach to problem-solving with lateral thinking. It asks that people come up with ideas and thoughts that can at first seem to be a bit crazy. The idea here is that some of these ideas can be crafted into original, creative solutions to the problem you're trying to solve, while others can spark still more ideas. This approach aims to get people unstuck, by "jolting" them out of their normal ways of thinking. During brainstorming sessions there should therefore be no criticism of ideas: Students are trying to open up possibilities and break down wrong assumptions about the limits of the problem. Judgments and analysis at this stage stunt idea generation. Ideas should only be evaluated at the end of the brainstorming session - this is the time to explore solutions further using conventional approaches [34; 94].

Role play and dramatization are modeling various situations for the educational aims of developing speaking abilities. They reflect a principle of problematical character at its certain organization and allows solving problem situations of a various degree of complexity [35; 76]. It can be used independently as well as in a context of a method of projects. Pupils apply the experience of the saved up knowledge, results of research during work above the project in realization of socially significant roles growing on the importance with passage of a cycle of occupations. Such modeling of situations of professional - business intercultural dialogue helps pupil to get used to various situations of the future activity which he can face in a real life [36; 65]. Problematical character of role game is realized through modeling of situations in which this or that problem can find the certain decision.

Being in a role, pupil solves problem situations, evidently showing in full communicative competence the practical decision of a problem. Certainly, such way of protection should be adequate to a researched problem. Selection by that and problems for use of this or that method is a separate research problem. Here it is important, that communicative competence was formed in real acts of intercourse in which the English language is means of formation and a formulation of idea [37; 49]. Thus, pupil, being based on the skills generated with the help of a debatable method, it is capable to apply and develop these skills in concrete situations of dialogue, carrying out socially significant roles and skill to assert the position in problem situations.

There can be one or several role play groups. If the whole class represents one role play group, it is necessary to keep some minor roles which can be taken away if there are less people in class than expected. If the teacher runs out of roles, he/she can assign one role to two students, in which one speaks secret thoughts of the other. With several role plays, when deciding on their composition, both the abilities and the personalities of the students should be taken into consideration. For example, a group consisting only of the shyest students will not be a success. Very often, optimum interaction can be reached by letting the students work in one group with their friends [38; 73].

Whether taking any part in the role play or not, the role of the teacher is to be as unobtrusive as possible. He or she is listening for students' errors making notes. Mistakes noted during the role play will provide the teacher with feedback for further practice and revision. It is recommended that the instructor avoids intervening in a role play with error corrections not to discourage the students.

Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between a role play and simulation. Both are forms of games mirroring a slice of reality. As a rule simulations are more highly structured and contain more diverse elements in their content and procedure. Simulations are simplified patterns of human interactions or social processes where the players participate in roles. Most simulations demand that the participants are supplied with background information and materials to work from both before and during the simulation. Accomplishing the task set in a simulation has sometimes got to be done within a time limit, e. g. in writing the front page of a newspaper, just as in reality. In contrast to simulations, role plays often consist of short scenes, which can be realistic - as in acting out a shopping situation - or pure fantasy - as in pretending to interview on TV. Realistic role plays have been common features of situational language teaching for a long time and are catered for by suitable dialogues in most beginners' textbooks.

Role plays are quite demanding foreign language situations in that the players have to use the foreign language correctly and adequately both in terms of the foreign language itself and the particular role that is acted out. Even very advanced learners of English are rarely able to speak consciously in a particular style or register, which may be necessary for a role. For these students the study of texts, or better, video tapes of encounters where the foreign language is used at different levels of formality, can be a valuable training in this skill prior to role play [39; 40].

Role plays improve the students' oral performance generally, and simulations quite often train all four skills. The complexity of simulations, which run over several stages, prevents the teacher from exactly determining beforehand which structures, words and language skills will be needed by the players. Therefore simulations mainly constitute practice sessions where the participants draw on everything they have learnt so far.

Debates (discussion) allow forming the conscious attitude to consideration of problems, activity in its discussion, speech culture, an orientation on revealing of the reasons of arising problems and installation on their decision further. Here the principle of formation of critical thinking is realized. Language, thus, is simultaneously both the purpose and means of teaching. The technique of debates helps pupils not only to seize all four kinds of speech activity, but to bring a language situation on a background of a problem of social and cultural sphere, to find out the reasons of the arisen situations and try to solve them. Interest to the independent decision of a problem is the stimulus, driving force of process of knowledge [40; 59].

Thus, application of discussion allows making active cognitive activity of pupils, their independence, forms culture of creative operative thinking, creates conditions for use of personal life experience and received before knowledge for mastering new. As discussion and the decision of problems occurs during controlled group dialogue at participants skill to operate in interests of group is developed, there is an interested respect for interlocutors and conducts to formation of collective. Application of this method in aggregate with a method of projects allows generating thinking and owning not only the English language, but also the expert understanding in various problems, capable to be guided in quickly varying information streams.

There are pros and cons of group discussion:

- group discussions provide for greater interaction between students,

- instructors maintain a greater control over what is being taught because they are able to steer the discussion.

- auditory learners find them appealing to their learning style,

- teachers can check on what students are retaining through questions posed,

- group discussion is comfortable for many teachers because it is a modified form of lecture,

- students have a tendency to stay focused on the lesson because they might be called on to answer questions,

- students may feel more comfortable asking questions during group discussions.

But:

- group discussions require setting up and enforcing ground rules for students. If these rules are not enforced then there is a possibility that the discussion could quickly go off-topic.

- students who are weak in note-taking skills will have trouble understanding what they should remember from group discussions. This is even more so than in lectures in many cases because not only the teacher but fellow students are talking about the lesson,

- some students may not feel comfortable being put on the spot during a whole group discussion.

Thus,group discussions are an excellent teaching method when used in conjunction with other methods. Instruction should be varied from day to day to help reach the most students possible. Teachers need to provide their students with note taking skills before starting discussions. It is important that teachers be good at managing and facilitating discussions. Questioning techniques are effective for this. Two questioning techniques that teachers employ is to increase their wait time after questions are asked and to only ask one question at a time.

Many experienced textbook and methodology manuals writers have argued that collaborative games are not just time-filling activities but have a great educational value in communicative teaching. W. R. Lee holds that most language games make learners use the language instead of thinking about learning the correct forms. He also says that games should be treated as central not peripheral to the foreign language teaching programme [41; 43]. A similar opinion is expressed by Richard Amato, who believes games to be fun but warns against overlooking their pedagogical value, particularly in foreign language teaching [42; 26].

In interactive teaching collaborative games are used. They are aimed to developing communicative abilities, fluency in speaking, creative mind.

There are many advantages of using games. They are highly motivating and entertaining, and they can give shy students more opportunity to express their opinions and feelings. They also enable learners to acquire new experiences within a foreign language which are not always possible during a typical lesson. Furthermore, to quote Richard Amato, they, "add diversion to the regular classroom activities," break the ice, " [but also] they are used to introduce new ideas”. [19, c.56]. In the easy, relaxed atmosphere which is created by using games, students remember things faster and better. Further support comes from A. Zdybiewska, who believes games to be a good way of practicing language, for they provide a model of what learners will use the language for in real life in the future [43; 48].

Collaborative games encourage, entertain, teach, and promote fluency. If not for any of these reasons, they should be used just because they help students see beauty in a foreign language and not just problems.

Project is a set of educational and cognitive modes which allow solve this or that problem as a result of independent actions of pupils with obligatory presentation of results. With reference to a lesson of foreign language, the project is specially organized by the teacher and independently carried out by pupils, finished with creation of a creative product.

The work with the projects teacher can realize in groups and individually. It is necessary to note, that the method of projects helps children to seize such competences as: to be ready to work in collective, to accept the responsibility for a choice, to share the responsibility with members of the team, to analyze results of activity [44; 24].

In a project work students are put in the centre of the action, where they use the language and practice communicative speech. The purpose of this method is to encourage the learners to work things out for themselves. It is an extended language activity, focusing on the topics, themes. The project work is a means of communication and enjoyment. The learners can experiment with the language as something real. It is a highly adaptable methodology, it is useful as a means of generating positive motivation, because it is very personal. The students tell about their own lives, their own research into topics that interest them. This work helps them to understand that they can use English to talk about their own world, it improves their ability to think [45; 37].

Project work allows students to consolidate the language that they have learnt and encourages them to acquire new vocabulary and expressions. In addition, it gives learners integrated skills practice. Throughout project work students have extensive practice of the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. Using projects with classes provides excellent opportunities for cross - curricular work. The topics should be carefully chosen and have to be presented in a lively and up-to-date manner. It is important to present a new project in an enthusiastic way and encourage the class activity in a discussion about the key topic [46; 54]. The more students are engaged in to a project, the more likely that the project will be a success. The teacher tries to encourage learners to think of their own ideas, to produce something new of their own. Before setting up a project it is essential to explain the final outcome, this will help them to understand what they are doing and why. The teacher explains the students that at the end of the project they will write or design a small leaflet on the topic, a wall display, a poster…

There are some stages in presenting a project:

1. Initial discussion of the idea.

2. Decide a form of the project.

3. Practicing language skills.

4. Collecting information.

5. Displaying the result of the research [46; 54]

Every project work finished in stage of reflection. All errors are marked and corrected

Jigsaw is a cooperative learning technique that reduces racial conflict among school children, promotes better learning, improves student motivation, and increases enjoyment of the learning experience. The jigsaw technique was first developed in the early 1970s by Elliot Aronson and his students at the University of Texas and the University of California. Since then, hundreds of schools have used the jigsaw classroom with great success [29; 43].

This technique learning allows students to be introduced to material and yet maintain a high level of personal responsibility. The purpose of Jigsaw is to develop teamwork and cooperative learning skills within all students. In addition it helps develop a depth of knowledge not possible if the students were to try and learn all of the material on their own. Finally, because students are required to present their findings to the home group, Jigsaw learning will often disclose a student's own understanding of a concept as well as reveal any misunderstandings.

This strategy involves students becoming "experts" on one aspect of a topic, then sharing their expertise with others. Divide a topic into a few constitutive parts ("puzzle pieces”). Form subgroups of 3-5 and assign each subgroup a different "piece" of the topic (or, if the class is large, assign two or more subgroups to each subtopic). Each group's task is to develop expertise on its particular subtopic by brainstorming, developing ideas, and if time permits, researching. Once students have become experts on a particular subtopic, shuffle the groups so that the members of each new group have a different area of expertise. Students then take turns sharing their expertise with the other group members, thereby creating a completed "puzzle” of knowledge about the main topic. A convenient way to assign different areas of expertise is to distribute handouts of different colours. For the first stage of the group work, groups are composed of students with the same colour of handout; for the second stage, each member of the newly formed groups must have a different colour of handout.

The jigsaw helps to avoid tiresome plenary sessions, because most of the information is shared in small groups. This method can be expanded by having students develop expertise about their subtopics first through independent research outside of class. Then, when they meet with those who have the same subtopic, they can clarify and expand on their expertise before moving to a new group. One potential drawback is that students hear only one group's expertise on a particular topic and don't benefit as much from the insight of the whole class; to address this issue, you could collect a written record of each group's work and create a master document-a truly complete puzzle-on the topic.

In its simplest form, the Jigsaw instructional strategy is when:

1. Each student receives a portion of the materials to be introduced;

2. Students leave their "home” groups and meet in "expert” groups;

3. Expert groups discuss the material and brainstorm ways in which to present their understandings to the other members of their "home” group;

4. The experts return to their "home” groups to teach their portion of the materials and to learn from the other members of their "home” group. [26, c.39]

The benefit of the jigsaw classroom is that it is a remarkably efficient way to learn the material. But even more important, the jigsaw process encourages listening, engagement, and empathy by giving each member of the group an essential part to play in the academic activity. Group members must work together as a team to accomplish a common goal; each person depends on all the others. No student can succeed completely unless everyone works well together as a team. This "cooperation by design” facilitates interaction among all students in the class, leading them to value each other as contributors to their common task.

Snowball Groups/Pyramids. This technique involves progressive doubling: students first work alone, then in pairs, then in fours, and so on. In most cases, after working in fours, students come together for a plenary session in which their conclusions or solutions are pooled. Provide a sequence of increasingly complex tasks so that students do not become bored with repeated discussion at multiple stages. For example, have students record a few questions that relate to the class topic. In pairs, students try to answer one another's questions. Pairs join together to make fours and identify, depending on the topic, either unanswered questions or areas of controversy or relevant principles based on their previous discussions. Back in the large class group, one representative from each group reports the group's conclusions.