Guidelines for teaching oral language were adopted in Berlitz school

1. Never translate: demonstrate. never explain: act. never make a speech: ask question. never speak too slowly: speak normally.

2. never imitate mistakes: correct. never speak with single word: use sentences. never speak too much: make students speak much. never speak too quickly: speak normally.

3. never use the book: use your lesson plan. never jump around: follow your plan. never go too fast: keep the face of the students. never speak too loudly: speak naturally. never be impatient: take it easy.

6. Describe limitations of the direct method according to Henry Sweet. The British applied linguist Henry Sweet had recognized its limitations. It offered innovations at the level of teaching procedures but lacked a thorough methodological basis. Its main focus was on the exclusive use of the target language in the class­room, but it failed to address many issues that Sweet thought more basic. Sweet and other applied linguists argued for the development of sound methodological principles that could serve as the basis for teaching tech­niques. In the 1920s and 1930s applied linguists systematized the prin­ciples proposed earlier by the Reform Movement and so laid the foundations for what developed into the British approach to teaching English as a foreign language. He offered innovations at the level of teaching procedures but lacked a through methodological basis. Its main focus was on the exclusive use of the target lang. in the classroom, but it failed to address many issues that Sweet thought more basis. Sweet and other applied linguists argued for the development of sound methodological principles that could serve as the basis for teaching techniques.

direct method also known as:

-reform method

-natural method

- phonetical method

- anti-grammatical method.

7. Speak on Oral Approach and Situational lang. teaching: give its background and general outline. Describe the role of vocabulary in Oral Approach and Situational lang. teaching. The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguists such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. They were familiar with the Direct method as well as the work of 19th century applied linguists such as Otto Jesperson and Daniel Jones but attempted to formally develop a scientifically-founded approach to teaching English than was evidenced by the Direct Method.^[1]

A number of large-scale investigations about language learning and the increased emphasis on reading skills in the 1920s led to the notion of "vocabulary control". It was discovered that languages have a core basic vocabulary of about 2,000 words that occurred frequently in written texts, and it was assumed that mastery of these would greatly aid reading comprehension. Parallel to this was the notion of "grammar control", emphasizing the sentence patterns most-commonly found in spoken conversation. Such patterns were incorporated into dictionaries and handbooks for students. The principle difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that methods devised under this approach would have theoretical principles guiding the selection of content, gradation of difficulty of exercises and the presentation of such material and exercises. The main proposed benefit was that such theoretically-based organization of content would result in a less-confusing sequence of learning events with better contextualization of the vocabulary and grammatical patterns presented.^[1] Last but not least, all language points were to be presented in "situations". Emphasis on this point led to the approach's second name. Proponent claim that this approach leads to students' acquiring good habits to be repeated in their corresponding situations. Teaching methods stress PPP (presentation (introduction of new material in context), practice (a controlled practice phase) and production (activities designed for less-controlled practice)).^[1]

Although this approach is all but unknown among language teachers today, elements of it have had long lasting effects on language teaching, being the basis of many widely-used English as a Second/Foreign Language textbooks as late as the 1980s and elements of it still appear in current texts.^[1] Many of the structural elements of this approach were called into question in the 1960s, causing modifications of this method that lead to Communicative language teaching. However, its emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns still finds widespread support among language teachers and remains popular in countries where foreign language syllabuses are still heavily based on grammarThe origins of this approaches began with the work of Britain applied linguistics in the 1920s and 1930s. 2 of the leaders in this movement were Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby, 2 of the most prominent figures in British 20th c.The Oral Approach was the accepted British approach to English lang. teaching by the 1950s. It is described in the standard methodology textbooks of the period. Oral Approach – means speaking. Aural Approach –means speaking and listening.

Palmer (1917-1921) a systematic study of the principles and procedures that could be applied to the selection and organization of the content of a lang. course. Hornby (1954-1956) Oxford progressive English course for adult learners: principles of the Oral Approach. Palmer, Hornby, and other British applied linguists from the 1920s onward developed an approach to methodology that involved systematic principles of selection (the procedures by which lexical and grammatical content was chosen), gradation (principles by which the organization and sequencing of content were determined), and presentation (tech­niques used for presentation and practice of items in a course). Although Palmer, Hornby, and other English teaching specialists had differing views on the specific procedures to be used in teaching English, their general principles were referred to as the Oral Approach to language teaching. This was not to be confused with the Direct Method, which, although it used oral procedures, lacked a systematic basis in applied linguistic theory and practice.

An oral approach should not be confused with the obsolete Direct Method, which meant only that the learner was bewildered by a flow of ungraded speech, suffering all the difficulties he would have encountered in picking up the language in its normal environment and losing most of the compensatingbenefits of better contextualization in those circumstances.

Its principles are seen in Hornby's famous Oxford Progressive English Course for Adult Learners (1954-6) and in many other more recent textbooks. One of the most active proponents of the Oral Approach in the sixties was the Australian George Pittman. Pittman and his colleagues were responsible for developing an influential set of teaching materials based on the situational approach, which were widely used in Australia, New Guinea, and the Pacific ter­ritories. Most Pacific territories continue to use the so-called Tate ma­terials, developed by Pittman's colleague Gloria Tate. Pittman was also responsible for the situationally based materials developed by the Com­monwealth Office of Education in Sydney, Australia, used in the English programs for immigrants in Australia. These were published for world­wide use in 1965 as the series Situational English. Materials by Alexander and other leading British textbook writers also reflected the principles of Situational Language Teaching as they had evolved over a twenty-year period. The main characteristics of the approach were as follows:

1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught or­ally before it is presented in written form.

2. The target language is the language of the classroom.

3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.

4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.

5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones.

6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammat­ ical basis is established.

It was the third principle that became a key feature of the approach in the sixties, and it was then that the term situational was used increasingly in referring to the Oral Approach. Hornby himself used the term the Situational Approach in the title of an influential series of articles pub­lished in English Language Teaching in 1950. Later the terms Structural-Situational Approach and Situational Language Teaching came into common usage. To avoid further confusion we will use the term Situ­ational Language Teaching (SLT) to include the Structural-Situational and Oral approaches. How can Situational Language Teaching be char­acterized at the levels of approach, design, and procedure?

The role of vocabulary. Vocabulary was seen as an essential component of reading proficiency. H. Palmer and other specialists produced a guide to the English vocabulary needed for teaching.

8. Give the background of the Audiolingual Method. Describe it in terms of approach, design and procedure. Background. The Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a reading-based approach to foreign language teaching for use in American schools and colleges (Chapter 1). This emphasized teaching the comprehension of texts. Teachers taught from books containing short reading passages in the foreign language, preceded by lists of vocabulary. Rapid silent reading was the goal, but in practice teachers often resorted to discussing the content of the passage in English. Those involved in the teaching of English as a second language in the United States between the two world wars used either a modified Direct Method approach, a reading-based approach, or a reading-oral approach (Darian 1972). Unlike the ap­proach that was being developed by British applied linguists during the same period, there was little attempt to treat language content system­atically. Sentence patterns and grammar were introduced at the whim of the textbook writer. There was no standardization of the vocabulary or grammar that was included. Neither was there a consensus on what grammar, sentence patterns, and vocabulary were most important for beginning, intermediate, or advanced learners.

But the entry of the United States into World War II had a significant effect on language teaching in America. To supply the U.S. government with personnel who were fluent in German, French, Italian, Chinese, Japanese, Malay, and other languages, and who could work as inter­preters, code-room assistants, and translators, it was necessary to set up a special language training program. The government commissioned American universities to develop foreign language programs for military personnel. Thus the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) was established in 1942. Fifty-five American universities were involved in the program by the beginning of 1943.

The Audio-Lingual method is based on the theory that language learning is a question of habit formation. It has its origins in Skinner’s principles of behavior theory. Since learning is thought to be a question of habit formation, errors are considered to be bad and to be avoided. ALM demands more memorization of structure-based dialogs. Students memorize an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role-playing. One of the key principles of the Audio-Lingual method is that the language teacher should provide students with a native-speaker-like model. By listening, students are expected to be able to mimic the model. Based upon contrastive analyses, students are drilled in pronunciation of words that are most dissimilar between the target language and the first language. Grammar is not taught directly by rule memorization, but by examples. The method presumes that second language learning is very much like first language learning. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids. Great importance is attached to pronunciation. Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted. Successful responses are immediately reinforced. There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback. Less mother tongue. Textbooks, drills, tapes, language labs.

Procedure. Since Audiolingualism is primarily an oral approach to language teach­ing, it is not surprising that the process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is on immediate and accurate speech; there is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language. As far as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction, and translation or use of the native tongue is discouraged. Classes of ten or less are considered optimal, although larger classes are often the norm. Brooks lists the following procedures the teacher should adopt in using the Audiolingual Method:

The modeling of all learnings by the teacher. The subordination of the mother tongue to the second language by rendering English inactive while the new language is being learned. The early and continued training of the ear and tongue without recourse to graphic symbols. The learning of structure through the practice of patterns of sound, order, and form, rather than by explanation. The gradual substitution of graphic symbols for sounds after sounds are thor­oughly known. The summarizing of the main principles of structure for the student's use when the structures are already familiar, especially when they differ from those of the mother tongue....The shortening of the time span between a performance and the pronounce­ment of its Tightness or wrongness, without interrupting the response. This enhances the factor of reinforcement in learning. The minimizing of vocabulary until all common structures have been learned. The study of vocabulary only in context. Sustained practice in the use of the language only in the molecular form of speaker-hearer-situation. Practice in translation only as a literary exercise at an advanced level.

In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures would be observed: 1. Students first hear a model dialogues (either read by the teacher or on tape) containing the key structures that are the focus of the lessons. they repeat each line of the dialogue, individually and in chorus.

2. the dialogue is adapted to the students interest or situation, through changing certain key words or phrases. This is acted out by the students.

3. Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. These are 1^st practiced in chorus and then individually.

4. The students may refer to their textbook and follow-up reading, writing or vocabulary activities based on the dialogue may be introduced. at the beginning level writing is purely imitative and consists of little more than copying out sentences that have been practiced.

5. Follow up activities may take place in the lang. laborotary, where further dialogue and drill work is carried out.

Approach. the theory of lang. underlying Audiolingualism was structural linguistics. Grammar or structure was the starting point in teaching a FL. The lang. was taught by systematic attention to pronunciation any by intensive. Theory of language. The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1950s - a view that came to be known as structural linguistics. Linguistics had emerged as a flour­ishing academic discipline in the 1950s, and the structural theory of language constituted its backbone. Structural linguistics had developed in part as a reaction to traditional grammar. Traditional approaches to the study of language had linked the study of language to philosophy and to a mentalist approach to grammar. Grammar was considered a branch of logic, and the grammatical categories of Indo-European lan­guages were thought to represent ideal categories in languages. Many nineteenth-century language scholars had viewed modern European lan­guages as corruptions of classical grammar, and languages from other parts of the world were viewed as primitive and underdeveloped.

The reaction against traditional grammar was prompted by the move­ment toward positivism and empiricism, which Darwin's Origin of the Species had helped promote, and by an increased interest in non-European languages on the part of scholars. A more practical interest in language study emerged. As linguists discovered new sound types and new patterns of linguistic invention and organization, a new interest in phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax developed. By the 1930s, the scientific approach to the study of language was thought to consist of collecting examples of what speakers said and analyzing them ac­cording to different levels of structural organization rather than ac­cording to categories of Latin grammar. A sophisticated methodology for collecting and analyzing data developed, which involved transcribing spoken utterances in a language phonetically and later working out the phonemic, morphological (stems, prefixes, suffixes, etc.), and syntactic (phrases, clauses, sentence types) systems underlying the grammar of the language. Language was viewed as a system of structurally related ele­ments for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, mor­phemes, words, structures, and sentence types. The term structural referred to these characteristics: (a) Elements in a language were thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed (structured) way. (b) Lan­guage samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological, etc.). (c) Linguistic lev­els were thought of as systems within systems — that is, as being pyram­idally structured; phonemic systems led to morphemic systems, and these in turn led to the higher-level systems of phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Design. In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an instructional system. Design is the level of method anal­ysis in which we consider (a) what the objectives of a method are; (b) how language content is selected and organized within the method, that is, the syllabus model the method incorporates; (c) the types of learning tasks and teaching activities the method advocates; (d) the roles of learn­ers; (e) the roles of teachers; (f) the role of instructional materials.

Objectives Different theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a method; that is, they determine what a method sets out to achieve. The specification of particular learning objectives, however, is a product of design, not of approach. Some methods focus primarily on oral skills and say that reading and writing skills are secondary and derive from transfer of oral skills. Some methods set out to teach general commu­nication skills and give greater priority to the ability to express oneself meaningfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical ac­curacy or perfect pronunciation. Others place a greater emphasis on accurate grammar and pronunciation from the very beginning. Some methods set out to teach the basic grammar and vocabulary of a lan­guage. Others may define their objectives less in linguistic terms than in terms of learning behaviors, that is, in terms of the processes or abilities the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction. Gattegno writes, for example, "Learning is not seen as the means of accumulating knowledge but as the means of becoming a more proficient learner in whatever one is engaged in" (1972:89). This process-oriented objective may be offered in contrast to the linguistically oriented or product-oriented objectives of more traditional methods. The degree to which a method has process-oriented or product-oriented objectives may be re­vealed in how much emphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisition and grammatical proficiency and in how grammatical or pronunciation er­rors are treated in the method. Many methods that claim to be primarily process oriented in fact show overriding concerns with grammatical and lexical attainment and with accurate grammar and pronunciation.

Types of learning and teaching activities

Dialogues and drills form the basis of audiolingual classroom practices. Dialogues provide the means of contextualizing key structures and il­lustrate situations in which structures might be used as well as some cultural aspects of the target language. Dialogues are used for repetition and memorization. Correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intona­tion are emphasized. After a dialogue has been presented and memorized, specific grammatical patterns in the dialogue are selected and become the focus of various kinds of drill and pattern-practice exercises. The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method. Various kinds of drills are used. Brooks (1964: 156-61) includes the following:

1. Repetition. The student repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. He does this without looking at a printed text. The utterance must be brief enough to be retained by the ear. Sound is as important as
form and order.

2. Inflection. One word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.

3. Replacement. One word in an utterance is replaced by another.

4. Restatement. The student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else, according to instructions.

5. Completion. The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeats the utterance in completed form.

6. Transposition. A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.

7. Expansion. When a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence.

8. Contraction. A single word stands for a phrase or clause.

9. Transformation. A sentence is transformed by being made negative or in­terrogative or through changes in tense, mood, voice, aspect, or modality.

10.. Integration. Two separate utterances are integrated into one.

11. Rejoinder. The student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utter­ance. He is told in advance to respond in one of the following ways:

Be polite. Answer the question. Agree. Express surprise. Express regret. Disagree. Question what is said. Fail to understand.

12. Restoration. The student is given a sequence of words that have been culled from a sentence but still bear its basic meaning. He uses these words with a minimum of changes and additions to restore the sentence to its original form. He may be told whether the time is present, past, or future.