Litotes is a specific variant of meiosis.

Freddy got out of bed and low spirits. Communicative function. Zeugma is used to create a humoristic effect which is achieved by means of contradiction between the similarity of the two syn­tactic structures and their semantic heterogeneity. More examples:

Mary dropped a tear and her handkerchief.

George possessed two false teeth and a kind heart.

Dora plunged into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room.

Любить медалі один, а другий - мрію.

ANTONOMASIA

When the speaker resorts to antonomasia, he creates the so-called "talk­ing names" which aim at depicting certain traits of human character: moral and psychological features, peculiarities of behaviour, outlook, etc.: John is a real Romeo.

The Snake entered the room (instead of Mary entered the room). ¹

Yesterday Jack came across Miss Careless again. ^u

Sam is the Napoleon of crime.

/ haven't seen the Pimple of late.

40. Repetition: main types. Phonetic repetitions. Types of lexical repetitions

Repetition serves to convey and intensify various psychological and emotional states of characters in literary works, their and the author's attitude towards the things described. Repetition can often be funny and used in the text to produce a humorous effect.

Repetitions are usually classified according to the language units they consist of. So they may be grouped into

• Phonemic

• Morphemic (morphological)

• Lexical (word-repetition)

• Syntactic.

Phonemic repetitions are most widely used in poetry and prose. They are usually divided into a number of figures, the most popular of which are alliteration, assonance and rhyme. Traditionally, rhyme will be discussed in passages devoted to the issues of English versification (see Lecture 19). Meanwhile, the following scheme presenting some major figures based on phonemic repetition will suffice (the letter C stands for a consonant; V - for a vowel): Alliteration - Cvc (e.g. great / grow) Assonance - cVc (e.g. great / fail [ei]) Consonance - cvC (e.g. great / hea/) Reverse rhyme - CVc (e.g. great / grazed) Pararhyme - CvC (e.g. great / groat) Rhyme - cVC (e.g. great / bait).

As is seen from the scheme, alliteration consists in the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more nearby words: e.g. The weary, way-worn wanderer... (E.A. Poe). Alliteration not only pro­duces a certain sound effect pleasing to the ear (the so-called euphony [ ju:fsni]), but it is often used for onomatopoeic [,on3urmt3u'pi:ik] purposes, i.e. to imitate sounds of nature (see below). We can hear І і о the slight rustling of leaves in the following lines from G. Eliot:! j g All round, both near andfar, there were grand trees, motionless - in the still sunshine, and, like all large motionless things, seeming to add to the stillness. Here and there a leaf fluttered down; petals J;

fell in a silent shower; a heavy moth floated by, and, when it settled, I: P

Assonance consists in the repetition of similar or identical vowel sounds in two or more nearby words, often in conjunction with di I ferent consonants, e.g.:

• How sad and bad and mad it was (R.Browning).

•...with the smoking biueness ofPluto's gloom... (D.H. Law­rence)

Assonance may be combined with alliteration to produce a sense of harmony and an exquisite acoustic effect:

...the rare and radiant maiden

Whom the angels name Lenore —Nameless here for evermore (E.A. Poe).

The most important, if not the largest group, of repetitions com­prises lexical, or word repetitions, i.e. repetitions of the same word or word-combination for two or more times in the same micro- and/or macrocontext.

According to the place of their occurrence, lexical repetitions I: g are usually classified by scholars into ordinary repetition, successive!: f (or juxtaposed) repetition, repetitions in strong positions, distant • j о repetition and distant repetition throughout the text.

Ordinary repetition "has no definite place in the sentence and the repeated unit occurs in various positions -...a,...a...,a.... Ordinary jj r repetition emphasizes both the logical and the emotional meaning of J • jg the reiterated word (phrase)" [166, p.73], e.g.: Halfway along the righthand side of the dark brown hall I: ^ was a dark brown door with a dark brown settee beside it. After I ': f! had put my hat, my gloves, my muffler and my coat on the settee we ' ^U three went through the dark brown door into a darkness without any brown in it. (W.Gilbert) I really don't see anything romantic in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love. But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal. (O.Wilde)

Successive (or juxtaposed) repetition is a repetition of a word or phrase two, three or more times in succession -...a, a, a.... Be­ing the most obvious and emphatic kind of recurrence, successivc repetition has a great stylistic potential. It happens because with each repetition the word acquires new connotations, grows in importance. Being the same, the word becomes non-identical with its "preceding counterparts": A¹, A²,...An, where A¹ ^An. [179, p.61] The repeated unit may convey the intensity of feeling, the peak of emotions of the speaker, the painful progress, durability of some action or monotony of time, etc., e.g.:

it was wretched weather; stormy and wet, stormy and wet, mud, mud, mud, deep in all the streets. (Ch.Dickens) [quoted from 167, p.51]

• lone, alone, all, all, alone Alone on a wide, wide sea. (S.Coleridge)

• Considering the character of their structural organization, some stylisticians (see, for example, N.I. Lihosherst [75]) differentiate between (1) ordinary contact repetition (based mostly on the use of binomials, or word pairs) (see Example No. 1 below) and (2) extended repetition (when the unit is repeated combined with some additional components of a specifying or expanding semantic quality). Examples: The city had laid miles and miles of streets and sewers through the region. (R.Aldington) (1)

Repetitions in strong positions. As is known, words placed in strong positions (beginnings and endings) are more emphatic, more psychologically prominent than those in the middle of a line, stanza, utterance, or paragraph. Words repeated in initial or final positions produce an aesthetic effect, as if balancing against each other. The Ю4 following figures of rhetoric belong to this group of repetitions:

1. lexical anaphora

2. lexical epistrophe (or epiphora)

3. lexical anadiplosis (or catch repetition; termed also linking, or lexical reduplication/reduplicatio)

4. chain-repetition

5. lexical framing (or ring-repetition)

6. symploce
40. Repetition: main types. Phonetic repetitions. Type of lexical repetition.

• Repetition is an expressive means of language used when certain words or certain phrases are repeated for a stronger emphasis by the author. R. aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance. There are such t ypes of lexical repetition as: 1) Consecutive contact repetition of sentence parts and separate sentences: I am weary, weary, weary of the whole thing! 2) Anaphora. The repeated word or word-combination comes at the beginning of each consecutive syntactic structure: Victory is what we need. Victory is what we expect. 3) Epiphora. The repeated unit is placed at the end of each consecutive syntactic structure. 4) Framig. The initial part of a language unit is repeated at the end of this unit: Poor Mary. How much Jack loved her! What will he do now? I wish it hadn’t happened. Poor Mary. 5) Linking or reduplication. The final component of a syntactic structure is repeated at the beginning of a sequential syntactic structure: It was because of that dreadful occurrence. That dreadful occurrence had changed it all.

• Phonetic repetition: 1) Assonance is a stylistically motivated repetition of stressed vowels. The repeated sounds stand close together to create an euphonious effect and rhyme: The r ai n in S pa in falls m ai nly on the pl ai n. 2) Alliteration is a stylistically motivated repetition of consonants. The repeated sound is often met at the beginning of words. Sh e s ells s ea sh ells on s ea sh ore. Assonance and alliteration make texts easy to memorize. 3) Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature(wind, sea…), by things (machines or tools) by people (singing, laughter) and animas. 4) Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines in verse. 5) Chiasmus (reversed parallel construction).