Types of relations in grammar. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.

Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear relations between units in a segmental sequence. The combination of two words or word-groups one of which is modified by the other forms a unit which is reffered to as a syntactic ” syntagma”. There are four main types of notional syntagmas: predicative (the combination of a subject and a predicate), objective (-/- a verb and its object), attributive (a noun and attribute), adverbial (a modified notional word, such as a verb, adjective, or adverb, with its adverbial modifier). The other type of relations, opposed to syntagmatic and called “paradigmatic”, are such as exist between elements of the system outside the strings where they co-occur. Unlike syntagmatic relations, paradigmatic relations cannot be directly observed in utterances, that is why they are reffered to as relations “in absentia”.

Paradigmatic relations coexist with syntagmatic relations in such a way that some sort of syntagmatic connection is necessery for the realization of any paradigmatic series. This is especially evident in a classical grammatical paradigm which presents a productive series of forms each consisting of a syntagmatic connection of two elements: one common for the whole of the series, the other specific for every individual form in the series.

A linguistic unit can enter into relations of two different kinds. It enters into paradigmatic relations with all the units that can also occur in the same environment. PR are relations based on the principles of similarity. They exist between the units that can substitute one another. For instance, in the word-group A PINT OF MILK the word PINT is in paradigmatic relations with the words bottle, cup, etc. The article A can enter into PR with the units the, this, one, same, etc. According to different principles of similarity PR can be of three types: semantic, formal and functional.

Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning: a book to read = a book for reading. He used to practice English every day - He would practice English every day.

Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms. Such relations exist between the members of a paradigm: man - men; play - played - will play - is playing.

Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. They are established between the elements that can occur in the same position. For instance, noun determiners: a, the, this, his, Ann’s, some, each, etc.

32. The development of grammatical theory.

I. THE AGE OF PRESCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR (end of the 16th century – 1900). It includes two types of grammars which succeeded each other:

1) early prenormative grammars of English, beginning with WilliamBullokar's Bref Grammar for English (1585). Until the 17th century the term"grammar" in English was applied only to the study of Latin. One of theearliest and most popular Latin grammars written in English, by William Lily, was published in the first half of the 16th century and went throughmany editions. This work was very important for English grammar as it set astandard for the arrangement of material and thus Latin paradigmswith their English equivalents easily suggested the possibility ofpresenting English forms in a similar way, using the same terminology as inLatin grammar.

2) By the middle of the 18th century, when many of the grammaticalphenomena of English had been described, the early English grammars gave waya prescriptive (normative) grammar, which stated strict rules of grammaticalusage, condemning those constructions and forms which it considered to bewrong or "improper", and setting up a certain standard of correctness to beimplicitly followed by learners of English. The grammars of the second typestill constitute the only kind of grammar in use in the practical teaching ofEnglish.

3) By the end of the 19th century, when the prescriptive grammar hadreached its highest level of development, when the system of grammar known inmodern linguistics as traditional had been established, there appeared thescientific grammar. /both descriptive and explanatory / As Sweet's grammarappeared in the last decade of the 19th century, we may take 1900 as thedividing line between the two periods and the beginning of the second period.

II. THE AGE OF THE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMARS OF ENGLISH (including three newtypes of grammars). During the first half of the 20th century an intensivedevelopment of this grammar has taken place. Classical scientific grammar has accepted the traditional grammatical system of prescriptive grammar, but, as has been mentioned, now we witness the final stage of its existence, forsince the 1950's no new grammars of the scholarly traditional type seem tohave appeared. The new types of English grammars, which appeared since thefifties are the fourth type of grammar - structural or descriptive,which, in its turn, is becoming obsolete and is being supplanted by the fifth type of grammar - the transformational generative grammar.

The first systematic grammars originated in Iron Age India, with Yaska (6th c. BC), Pāṇini (4th c. BC) and his commentators Pingala (ca. 200 BC), Katyayana, and Patanjali (2nd c. BC). In the West, grammar emerged as a discipline in Hellenism from the 3rd c. BC forward with authors like Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace, the oldest extant work being the Art of Grammar, attributed to Dionysius Thrax (ca. 100 BC). Latin grammar developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus, Remmius Palaemon, Marcus Valerius Probus, Verrius Flaccus, and Aemilius Asper.

33. The functional styles of language

Functional styles are classified into bookish and colloquial. The group of bookish styles embraces the style of official documents, the style of scientific prose, the newspaper style, the publicistic style and the belletristic style. The group of colloquial styles includes the literary colloquial style, the informal colloquial style and substandard speech style.

THE BOOKISH STYLE. The style of official documents. This style aims at establishing, devel­oping and controlling business relations between individuals and organiza­tions. Being devoid of expressiveness, it is fully impersonal, rational and prag­matic. Its special language forms are rather peculiar. The graphical level of this style is distinguished by specific rules of making inscriptions, using capital letters and abbreviations. The lexical level is characterized by domination of bookish, borrowed, archaic and obsolescent words, professional terms

The style of scientific prose. This style serves as an instrument for Promoting scientific ideas and exchanging scientific information among people. To graphical peculiarities of the style of scientific prose belong number- or letter-indexed paragraphing, a developed system of headlines, titles and subtitles, footnotes, pictures, tables, schemes and formulae. A great part of the vocabulary is constituted by special terms of international origin. The sphere of computer technologies alone enlarges the word-stock of different language vocabularies by thousands of new terms, such as "modem", "monitor", "interface", "hard disk", "floppy disk" "scanner", "CD-rom drive", "driver", "fragmentation", "formatting "software", "hardware", etc. Most of such terms are borrowed from En­glish into other languages with preservation of their original form and sound­ing (модем, монітор, сканер, драйвер).

The newspaper style. The basic communicative function of this style is to inform people about all kinds of events and occurrences which may be of some interest to them. Newspaper materials may be classified into three groups: brief news reviews, informational articles and advertisements. The vocabulary of the newspaper style consists mostly of neutral common literary words, though it also contains many political, social and economic terms (gross output, gross revenue, single European currency, political summit, commodity exchange). There are lots of abbreviations (EU - European Union, UN - United Nations Organization).

Syntax of the newspaper style is a diversity of all structural types of sentences (simple, complex, com­pound and mixed) with a developed system of clauses connected with each other by all types of syntactic connections. The coating of bookishness is creat­ed by multicomponent attributive noun groups, participial, infinitive and gerundi- al word-combinations and syntactic constructions of secondary predication. Graphically. the newspaper style is notable for the system of head­lines. The headlines com­bine three functions: gripping readers' attention, providing information and evaluating the contents of the article. To perform these functions newspaper headlines must be sensational, expressive and informative.

The publicistic style falls into the following variants: the ora­tory style (speeches, lectures and reports), the style of radio and TV programs, the style of essays and journalistic articles. The most essential feature of the oratory style is the direct contact of the speaker with the audience. To establish and maintain this contact, the speaker continuously resorts to vari­ous language means of address: ladies and gentlemen, honourable guests, dear colleagues, dear friends, etc. Public speeches, radio and TV com­mentaries are crammed with syntactic stylistic devises of repetitions (direct synonymic, anaphoric, epiphoric, framing, linking), polysyndeton, and parallel­isms. These devices aim at making information persuasive. Journalistic arti cles and essays deal with political, social, economic, moral, ethical, philosoph ical, religious, educational, cultural and popular-scientific problems.

The belletristic style. This style attracts linguists most of all because the authors of books use the whole gamma of expressive means and stylistic devises while creating their images. The function of this style is cognitive aesthetic. The belletristic style embraces prose, drama and poetry. The lan­guage of emotive prose is extremely diverse. Most of the books contain the authors' speech and the speech of protagonists.

THE COLLOQUIAL STYLES. These styles comply with the regularities and norms of oral communication. The vocabulary of the literary colloquial style consists of neutral, bookish and literary words, though exotic words and colloquialisms are no exception. It is devoid of vulgar, slangy and dialectal lexical units. The vocabulary of the informal colloquial style is unofficial. The speaker chooses between the literary or informal colloquial style taking into account the following situational conditions: aim of communication, place of communication, presence or absence of strangers, personal relations, age factor, sex factor, etc.

One of the variants of the informal colloquial style is the dialect. Dialects are regional varieties of speech which relate to a geographical area.

The lowest level in the hierarchy of colloquial styles is occupied by substandard or special colloquial English. At the first glance, substandard English is a chaotic mixture of non-grammatical or contaminated speech patterns and vulgar words which should be criticized without regret. However, a detailed analysis of these irregularities shows that they are elements of a system, which is not deprived of rationality. For example, the universal grammatical form ain't is a simplified substitute for am (is, are) not, was (were) not, have (has, had) not, shall (will) not, there is (are, was, were) not: "I ain't sharin' no time. I ain't takin' nobody with me, neither" (J. Steinbeck).

Metaphor

Metaphor belongs to the figures of substitution and is the second figure of quality. Metaphor is the result of transference of the name of one object to another object. However, metaphoric transference is of different nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity).

Classification.Metaphors may be classified according to:

1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee metaphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed, like clichés:

to prick up one's ears; the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire; seeds of evil.

Original metaphors are not registered in dictionaries. They are creat­ed in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable:

Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.

We all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.

2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are classified into nominational, cognitive and imaginative (or figurative). Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic information. It is a purely technical device of nomination, when a new notion is named by means of the old vocabulary: the arm of the chair, the foot of the hill.

Nominational metaphor is a source of lexical homonymy.

When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cognitive metaphor is formed: One more day has died. A witty idea has come to me. The roads lead Jack there. The sight took John's attention. The shore was drowning in the fog.

Being a source of lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphors do not possess great stylistic value.

The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor. They are bright, image-bear­ing, picturesque and poetic:

Patricia's eyes were pools of still water. Time was bleeding away.

If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.

3. According to their structure. There are such metaphors as sim­ple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained). A simple metaphor con­sists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion: The leaves were falling sorrowfully.

A good book is the best of friends. The wind was a torrent of darkness.

A sustained metaphor appears in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their metaphoric meanings:

The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he does not resist, it will daze him first with its glittering reiterations_x so that when the mangling comes he is past knowing.

Communicative functions. Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. Its main function is aesthetic. Its natural sphere of usage is poetry and elevated prose.

35. Metonomy: types and stylistic functions

METONYMY

Metonymy is transference of a name of one object to another object. Metonymic transference of names is based upon the principle of conti­guity of the two objects.

Assigned features. As a rule, metonymy is expressed by nouns, less fre­quently - by substantivized numerals. That is why the syntactic functions and positions of metonymic words are those of the subject, object and predicative.

Classification. Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine). Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words or new meanings; table's leg, teapot's nose, a hand (instead of a worker), the press (instead of people writing for newspapers), grave (instead of death), the cradle (instead of infancy), etc. Contextual metonymy is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speech. It is fresh and expressive:

This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel. Communicative functions. Stylistic metonymy builds up imagery, points out this or another feature of the object described, and makes speech eco­nomical. More examples:

The sword is the worst argument in a situation like that.

The other voice shook his head and went away.

The messenger was followed by a pair of heavy boots.

The fish swallowed her death and the float went down.

I wish you had Gary's ears and Jack's eyes.

Linda gave her heart to the grocer's young man.

36.Irony: types and stylistic functions

This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to their primary language meanings:

ironical good means bad, enough means not enough, pleased means displeased, etc.

Assigned features. Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist words and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out of context: too clever by half, a young hopeful, head cook and bottle washer, to orate, to oratorize. In order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker often resorts to appropriate intonation and gestures.

Communicative function. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction, disappointment, displeasure, etc. More examples:

What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this.

Favoured country! - they let the paupers go to sleep!

Cutting off chickens' heeds! Such a fascinating process to watch.

It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a

penny in one's pocket.

Thank you very much for trumping my ace!

Він такий розумний, що й "два плюс два" не