Finite element analysis

6. The outrigger beams take up a storey height and are heavily reinforced. In some areas conventional bars are even replaced by an equivalent area of steel plate to ease congestion. Contractor Bovis Lend Lease is using self compacting concrete to penetrate densely reinforced areas. Surprisingly, the tall building does not require dampers to limit its movement. This is because of the stabilising effect of the heavy concrete core and columns and the setbacks. The asymmetric setbacks change the cross section of the building, so changing the frequency of wind passing it. This means that vortices, which would cause the building to move more, cannot build up.

7. As important as these steps — also known as setbacks — are architecturally, they also have an important engineering role as they each contain an outrigger stability system. These 5.3 m deep by 1.7 m wide concrete monoliths transfer lateral loads between the perimeter columns and the central core. SOM associate partner Robert Sinn explains that the lateral shear resistance of the core and overturning resistance of the perimeter structure are mobilised by linking them at discrete levels using outrigger trusses or beams. He adds that this means just a few heavier vertical elements are needed on the perimeter to keep the building stable, freeing up the facade.

Foundations.

8. Engineers had to deal with the inherent problem of the uneven load distribution of a massive, asymmetrical building and its tendency to move sideways under its own weight. The solution was to carry out a time-based finite element analysis on the structure so that movements could be predicted and compensated for during construction. Bovis Lend Lease used these results to make millimetre adjustments at every storey to bring the building back to plumb.

New Civil Engineer International, October, 2007

Множественное число существительных, кроме тех, основа которых оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x, a также существительных, имеющих окончание -о, об­разуется путем прибавления к основе окончания -s: a boy — boys, a book — books, a pen — pens, a girl — girls.

Множественное число существительных, основа ко­торых оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x, а также имеющих окончание -о, образуется путем прибавле­ния окончания -es:

a bench скамейка — benches, a bus автобус — buses, a glass стакан — glasses, a box коробка — boxes, a potato картошка — potatoes.

Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после согласной) во множественном числе имеют окончание -ies:

a baby младенец — babies, a fly муха — flies, a lady леди— ladies.

Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после глас­ной) во множественном числе имеют окончание -s: a boy — boys a toy — toys

Если слово оканчивается на f (-fe), то во множе­ственном числе f меняется на v и добавляется -(es): a life жизнь — lives, a knife нож — knives, a shelf полка — shelves, a wife жена — wives (исключение: roof крыша — roofs).

Как читаются окончания существительных во множественном числе?

-s читается как [s] после глухих согласных: books, cats -s читается как [z] после звонких согласных и глас­ных: pens, boys;

-es читается как [iz] после s, ss, sh, ch, x, z: boxes, у после согласных переходит в i+es: city — cities, lady — ladies.

Ряд существительных образует множественное чис­ло не по общим правилам:

а) изменяется корневая гласная: a man мужчина — теп мужчины, a woman женщина — women женщины, a foot нога — feet ноги, a tooth зуб — teeth зубы, a goose гусь — geese гуси, a mouse мышь — mice мыши;

б) добавляется окончание -en: an ох бык — oxen быки, a child ребенок — children дети;

в) заимствуются формы единственного и множествен­ного числа из латинского и греческого языков:

a formula — formulae (formulas), a crisis — crises, a criterion — criteria, an index —indices, a bacterium — bacteria.

В английском языке есть существительные, кото­рые имеют одну (общую) форму для единственного и множественного числа:

a deer олень — deer олени, a sheep овца — sheep овцы, a fish рыба — fish рыбы, a swine свинья — swine свиньи.

Некоторые существительные могут употребляться в форме либо только единственного, либо множествен­ного числа.

Употребляются только в единственном числе:

money — деньги, sugar — сахар, hair — волосы, business — дело, information — информация, сведения fruit — фрукты progress — прогресс, успехи news — новость, новости, peace — мир love — любовь knowledge — знание, знания advice — советы furniture — мебель luggage — багаж

Только во множественном числе употребляются слова:

clothes — одежда, goods — товары, riches — богатства, thanks — благодарности, manners — манеры, money — деньги

Только во множественном числе употребляются названия предметов, состоящих из двух и более частей:

trousers — брюки glasses — очки scissors — ножницы shorts — шорты pliers — плоскогубцы.

7.A Выбери правильный вариант, обращая внимание на исчисляемые и неисчисляе­мые существительные:

1. I’m going to buy new sunglass / sunglasses.

2. He’s going to buy some new trouser / trousers.

3. They are going to buy some new furniture / furni­tures.

4. His hair / hairs is fair.

5. He’s got much information / informations about his travel.

6. They gave us some advice / advices.

7.B Напиши следующие существи­тельные во множественном числе:

Box, sheep, place, library, photo, mouse, lady, glasses, bush, dress, country, bus, party, wife, day, knife, knowledge, month, pen, hero, goose, company, life, deer, tomato, city, man, play, news, child, fruit, shelf, leaf, foot, fish, woman, money, information.

7.C Поставь существительные в сле­дующих предложениях во множественное число (об­рати внимание на изменения в указательных мес­тоимениях):

1. A new house is in our street.

2. This story is very interesting.

3. A woman, a man, a boy and a girl are in the room.

4. Put this knife on that table.

5. What is your name?

6. He keeps his toy in a box.

7. This man works at our office.

8. He has a new suit.

9. The plate was on the table.

10. This town is very large.

11. Is that girl your sister?

12. I’ll give you my book.

13. This story is good.

14. Is this a good match?

15. The student put his book on the desk.

16. That house is new.

17. Is this a good student?

8.1 Сопоставь антонимы:

8.2 Составь предложения, используя существительные из одной колонки и выражения из второй:

1. Mortar

2. Bricks

3. Steel

4. Clay

5. The boards

6. Reinforced concrete

7. Clay

8. A moulding

9. The brickwork strength

10. A binder

A. were put down as a floor.

B. depends on the material quality.

C. is strengthened by bars.

D. is used to form clay bricks.

E. has high tensile strength.

F. is used in adhesive applications.

G. was pressed into steel moulds.

H. acts as a cementing material.

I. are put together to form a wall

J. is plastic.

8.3 Замени выделенные слова на:

a) process b) timber c) due to d) bend e) apart from f) aggregate g) produce h) board i) lasting j) concerning

1. Thanks to this project, small companies can manufacture affordable building materials locally, using their own resources. 2. We have a problem with the air temperature in this room. It is too cold. This is because of inadequate thermal insulation. 3. They encouraged the research activities on approaches and methods with regard to building materials and construction technology. 4. The properties of concrete are directly related to those of its constituents. 5. That was a new method to treat cement-based building materials hydrothermally. 6. Reinforced concrete comes cheap and will support structures for a long amount of time, but it is considered to be less strong and durable than brick buildings. 7. Various building materials and auxiliary building materials can be manufactured from waste glass in an environmentally sound way. Except for light-weight concrete and plaster these are, above all, glass wool mats for purposes of sound and heat insulation. 8. Modem western style home is often built with lumber frames and fitted with bricks. 9. Wood is used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber, such as planks. 10. They are studying an elastic bend of a beam under load.

8.4 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст Materials Used in Building и ответь на вопросы:

1. What naturally occurring and man-made building materials do you know?

2. What areas is the use of building materials usually segmented into?

3. What is the longest lasting building material?

4. What is specific of wood used in construction?

5. What types of bricks do you know? What are the advantages of bricks?

6. What materials are bricks made from?

7. Why is concrete the predominant building material in this modem age?

8. What materials is concrete made from?

9. What type of buildings is metal used for?

10. What did glass as a building material provide people with?

11. What do you know about the use of plastics for construction purposes?

12. What insulation materials are used in buildings?

13. Are there any environmental problems of using and producing building materials?

Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The use of building materials is typically segmented into specific trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work.

Building materials can be categorized into two sources, natural and synthetic. Natural building materials are those that are unprocessed or minimally processed by industry (lumber or glass). Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after human manipulations (plastics and paints).

Rock is the longest lasting building material available. It is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too. Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now.

Wood is a product of trees and sometimes other fibrous plants used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards or planks. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically.

A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale. Clay bricks are formed in a mould, or in commercialmanufacture more frequently by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper size. Bricks have been used as a building material since the 1700s. This was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant than wood, and cheap to produce. Cinder blocks replaced clay bricks in the late 20th century. They are made mostly with concrete.

Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a binder. After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. This is the material referred to by the term concrete. For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a low tensile strength, it is strengthened using steel rods or bars. This strengthened concrete is called reinforced concrete. Concrete has been the predominant building material in this modem age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport.

Metal is used as stmctural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal stmctural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if treated well lasts a long time.

Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass which is very brittle is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates in a very hot fire stove called a kiln. Additives are very often added to the mixture when making to produce glass with different colours or characteristics.

The term plastics covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymerization products. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today.

More recently synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used on a limited scale. It is light weight, easily shaped and an excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement.

Nowadays the production of raw materials for building purposes is on a world wide scale. Environmental concerns are also becoming a major world topic concerning the availability of certain materials, and the extraction of such large quantities needed for the human habitat.

8.5 Ответь на вопросы:

1. so it gives a lot of protection too.