Безличные и неопределенно-личные предложения

Английские предложения отличаются от русских тем, что в них всегда есть подлежащее и сказуемое. Поэтому в безличных предложениях, когда нет подле­жащего, в качестве формального подлежащего исполь­зуется местоимение it.

It is cold today. Сегодня холодно.

It rains. Идет дождь

Как видим, безличные предложения такого типа состоят из местоимения it, которое не переводится, глагола-связки в нужном по смыслу времени и имен­ной части сказуемого, выраженного чаще всего име­нем прилагательным. Именная часть может быть так­же выражена именем существительным или именем числительным.

It’s nice to meet you. Приятно познакомиться.

It is nine o’clock now. Сейчас девять часов. Очень часто безличные предложения описывают яв­ление природы, состояние погоды, обозначают время, расстояние.

Вопросительная и отрицательная формы безличных предложений образуются по тем же правилам, что и вопросительные и отрицательные формы предложений с именным составным сказуемым.

Is it cold? — Холодно?

Wasn’t it interesting? — Разве это не было интерес­но?

Isn’t it funny? — Разве это не смешно?

Частица not ставится после первого вспомогатель­ного глагола.

6.C Переведи на английский язык:

1. Сегодня холодно.

2. Идет снег целый день.

3. Сейчас утро.

4. Было приятно познакомиться с ва­шим другом.

5. Поздно. Пора спать.

6. Разве это не смешно?

7. Сейчас уже 10 часов утра.

8. На улице холодно?

9. Сейчас ранняя весна, но уже тепло.

10. Это далеко отсюда?

7.1 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERS:

Construction engineers engage in the design of temporary structures, quality assurance and quality control, building and site layout surveys, on site material testing, concrete mix design, cost estimating, planning and scheduling, safety engineering, materials procurement, and cost engineering and budgeting.

To complete projects construction engineers rely on plans and specifications created by architects, engineers and other constructors. During most of the 20th century structures have been first designed then engineering staff ensure it is built to plans and specifications by testing and overseeing the construction. Previous to the 20th century and more commonly since the start of the 21st century structures are designed and built in combination, allowing for site considerations and construction methods to influence the design process.

Keeping a workplace safe is a key to having a successful construction company. It is the construction engineer’s job to make sure that everything is conducted correctly. Construction engineers are also involved heavily with the construction schedule and document control as well as budget and cost control. Their role on site is to provide construction information, including repairs, requests for information, change orders and payment applications.

Construction engineers should have strong understanding for math and science, but many other skills are required, including critical thinking, listening, learning, problem solving, monitoring and decision making. Construction engineers have to be able to think about all aspects of a problem and listen to others’ ideas so that they can learn everything about a project before it begins. They must maintain project control of labour and equipment for safety, to ensure the project is on schedule and monitor quality control. When a problem occurs it is the construction engineer who will create and enact a solution.

7.2 Заполни таблицу:

1. The areas in which construction engineers are involved.

2. The design of structures in the 19th - 21st centuries.

3. Construction engineers’ role on the building site.

4. Construction engineers’ skills.

7.3 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст BUILDING:

In architecture, construction, engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following: any man-made structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or an act of construction. Buildings come in a wide amount of shapes and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons. Buildings serve several needs of society — primarily as shelter from weather and as general living space, to provide privacy, to store belongings and to live and work.

Residential buildings are called houses/homes, though buildings containing large numbers of separate dwelling units are often called apartment buildings/blocks to differentiate them from the more “individual” house. Building types may range from one-room woodframed, masonry, or adobe dwellings to multi-million dollar high- rise buildings able to house thousands of people.

Increasing settlement density in buildings and closer distances between buildings is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. A multistoreyed building is a building that has multiple floors above ground in the building. Multi-storey buildings aim to increase the area of the building without increasing the area of the land the building is built on, hence saving land and, in most cases, money.

7.4 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What does building refer to?

2. What needs do buildings serve?

3. What types of buildings are mentioned in the text?

4. What is the reason for high ground prices?

5. What are the advantages of multi-storeyed buildings?

7.5 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст SKYSCRAPERS:

A building many storeys high was first called a skyscraper in the 1880s in the United States. They were developed in the last part of the 19th century as a result of technological advancement and the social conditions at that time. They are now often referred to as high-rise buildings. The city of New York set the skyscraper pattern. Because the ground beneath the city streets is rock, it is solid enough to take the heaviest loads without subsiding as softer earth would do, and therefore it is well suited to bearing the weight of tall buildings.

Architects and civil engineers all over the United States were experimenting, especially with steel which was much lighter than iron. These tall buildings were required so that millions of people might be able to live and work in a comparatively small area. If skyscrapers are built the population of a whole town can live on quite a small plot of land. This is useful where land is expensive.

Skyscrapers have certain disadvantages. If they are built in a street of ordinary width, where the people who work in them come pouring out at the end of the day, the street will be overcrowded. Moreover, a skyscraper throws a long shadow, thereby keeping the sun from a great many people at certain hours. Two skyscrapers built near one another would be apt to trap the fumes of petrol in the space between them. To overcome these difficulties a scheme called zoning was introduced in the United States in the 1930s, whereby skyscrapers had to be set a certain distance from other buildings, depending on their height. Modern skyscrapers are usually built with open spaces, pedestrian precincts, or shopping centres at street levels to make the surroundings more attractive.

7.6 Определи верны или нет высказывания:

1. Skyscrapers were developed in the 20th century as a result of technological advancement.

2. The ground beneath the city of New York is not solid enough to bear the weight of skyscrapers.

3. American architects were experimenting with steel rather than iron.

4. High-rise buildings were required for those people who wanted to live and work in a big area.

5. Skyscrapers are useful where land is not cheap.

6. The streets in which skyscrapers are built may be overcrowded at the end of the day.

7. High-rise buildings do not have any disadvantages.

8. Skyscrapers can hardly make the surroundings attractive.

7.7 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст ROMAN CONCRETE:

During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete was made from quicklime, pozzolana, and an aggregate of pumice. Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was in effect a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains which trouble the builders of similar structures in stone or brick.

Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension.

The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures has ensured that many survive to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example of the longevity of concrete, which allowed the Romans to build this and similar structures across the Roman Empire. Many Roman aqueducts and Roman bridges have masonry cladding to a concrete core, a technique they used in structures such as the Pantheon, the dome of which is concrete.

The secret of concrete was lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. Portland cement was first used in concrete in the early 1840s.

7.8 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What components was Roman concrete made from?

2. Why was concrete regarded as a revolutionary material?

3. What is the difference between Roman concrete and modern structural concrete?

4. Why have many Roman structures survived to the present day?

5. What technique did the Romans use in their structures?

6. When was the secret of Roman concrete lost?

7. Who pioneered the re-use of concrete?

8. What aggregates are used in modem concrete?

7.9 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст FROM THE HISTORY OF BRICKMAKING:

Bricks were first used for building in the Middle East. More than 6,000 years ago the Sumerian people living in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers discovered that the muddy clay deposited by the two rivers was ideal for building. The clay was mixed with water and straw and pressed into rectangular moulds. The bricks were then turned out of the moulds and left to dry in the sun. Sun-dried bricks such as these, known as abode after the clay from which they are made, are still used for building in warm, dry regions throughout Africa and South America. Adobe is cheap and can last for centuries.

The next development in the history of brickmaking came around 4,000 years ago when the brick kiln was invented in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. Brickmakers found that if bricks were fired after they had been dried in the sun, they were harder and better able to withstand damp. The earliest type of kiln was a beehiveshaped mound of dried bricks with arches at the bottom in which the fires could be lit. Later kilns were permanent buildings in which the bricks were slowly heated up and allowed to cool over a period of four days.

From the Middle East, the ancient craft of brickmaking spread v/estward to Egypt and the Mediterranean and eastward to India and China. Roman builders brought bricks to Britain in the 1st century AD, but when the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century, the art of brickmaking was lost for some 600 years. It was revived by the Italians in the 11th century and spread quickly throughout northern Europe. By the mid-17th century brick-built walls were replacing the old timber frameworks in buildings.

7.10 Заполни таблицу периодов развития кирпичной промышленности:

7.11 Прочитай, переведи текст WINDY CITY WONDER и расположи абзацы в правильной последовательности:

1. Non-linear analysis predicted the short and long term displacement of Chicago’s Trump Tower, which included the effects of creep and shrinkage. If no horizontal correction had been made during construction, the roof could have moved 300 mm out of line due to the combined effects of gravity, creep and shrinkage.

2. Any massive building needs massive foundations. The building sits on 30 m long piles founded on bedrock. A permanent steel liner, which seals the excavation, cuts through 18 m of stiff clay and 12 m of boulders and fractured rock to form a socket in solid rock. On completion the Tramp Tower will hold the record for the world’s highest residential building, but only for a year. After that it will be dwarfed by the 610 m, 150 storey Chicago Spire.

3. Clever engineering has meant that North America’s tallest residential building will be solid as a rock despite its windy location.

4. A 3 m deep piled raft was poured continuously over a period of 22 hours. The concrete was poured using conveyor belts so that very few vibrators were needed; the temperature had to be carefully controlled as the concrete cured due to the raft thickness. If the differential temperature across the depth was too large, stresses would set up and lead to micro cracking.

5. Nestled among the forest of skyscrapers on the Chicago skyline, the 92 storey Trump Tower is currently notching its way up to become the city’s second tallest building. The 415 m tower will be completed in January 2009. The stepped concrete building has been designed to reflect the height of nearby buildings by architect and engineer for the project Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM). The first step aligns with the 130 m high Wrigley Building, the second the 179 m high Marina City Towers, and the third the 212 m high IBM Plaza, known as 330 North Wabash.