БЛАГОДАРНОСТИ. Эта книга – часть программы «Эволюция», совместного проекта научного отдела WGBH/NOVA и Clear Blue Sky Productions

Эта книга – часть программы «Эволюция», совместного проекта научного отдела WGBH/NOVA и Clear Blue Sky Productions. Кроме того, в проект входят телевизионный фильм в семи частях, веб‑сайт, мультимедийная библиотека и информационно‑образовательная программа. Участие в таком крупном предприятии вместе с множеством талантливых людей было для меня честью и удовольствием. Хочу выразить особую благодарность Полу Аллену и Джоди Паттон из Clear Blue Sky Productions за вдохновляющие идеи и щедрую поддержку проекта «Эволюция», а также Поле Апсель из научного отдела WGBH/NOVA за умелое управление его продвижением. Я благодарен за приглашение участвовать в проекте.

Ричард Хаттон, исполнительный продюсер телевизионного фильма, сумел обуздать непослушную науку – эволюционную биологию – и создать семь увлекательных серий. Он консультировался с десятками ведущих ученых и присматривал за съемочной группой, путешествующей по всему миру; тем не менее у него всегда находилось время поболтать со мной о подробностях массового вымирания на рубеже мелового и третичного периодов или о семейной жизни Чарльза Дарвина. Я благодарен ему за руководство и интеллектуальное общение. Формированием структуры сериала Ричард занимался вместе со старшим редактором NOVA Стивом Лайонсом, научным редактором фильма Джо Левином и заместителем продюсера Тиной Нгуен. Мне особенно хочется поблагодарить Джо за полезную электронную переписку и Тину за помощь в поиске всевозможной информации, какой бы экзотичной она ни была.

Огромная благодарность Кэролайн Чонси, менеджеру по издательским делам в WGBH Enterprises. Во время работы над этой книгой ей случалось играть множество ролей – неофициального редактора, дипломата и даже группы поддержки, – и за каждую из них я ей благодарен. Спасибо также арт‑консультанту Тоби Гринбергу, который просмотрел тысячи картинок, чтобы отобрать нужные для оформления книги, и в результате, на мой взгляд, все получилось замечательно. Спасибо также Бетси Гробан, управляющему директору WGBH Enterprises, литературному агенту WGBH Доу Куверу и постоянным сотрудникам WGBH: продюсеру‑координатору Лайзе Мировиц; бизнес‑менеджеру Карен Кэрролл Беннетт; руководителю группы Денизе Драго; заместителю продюсера фильма Керри Айэзи и секретарю Сеселии Келли; все они напряженно работали, чтобы собрать разрозненные части проекта воедино. В Clear Blue Sky Productions доброжелательными советами и замечаниями мне помогали вице‑президент и генеральный директор Эрик Робисон; директор документальных проектов Бонни Бенджамин‑Фарисс; директор по рекламе и маркетингу Джейсон Ханке и продюсер‑координатор Памела Розенстейн.

Продюсеры отдельных эпизодов фильма всегда находили в своем плотном расписании время, чтобы познакомить меня со своими изысканиями, расшифровками и съемками и просмотреть соответствующие части моей книги. Спасибо им всем: старшему продюсеру Дэвиду Эспару, продюсеру постановки Линде Гармон и продюсеру Сьюзен Льюис – «Опасная идея Дарвина»; продюсеру Джоелу Оликеру и сопродюсеру Крису Шмидту – «Великие превращения»; продюсерам Ричарду Хаттону и Кейт Черчилль – «Вымирание!»; продюсерам Гейл Виллумсен и Джил Шайнфелд – «Эволюционная гонка вооружений»; продюсерам Ноэлю Букнеру и Робу Виттлси – «Зачем нужен пол?»; продюсерам Джону Хеминуэю и Мишель Николасен – «Большой взрыв в эволюции мозга»; продюсеру Биллу Джерси и сопродюсеру Джеми Стоуби – «Как насчет Бога?».

Это книга о науке, поэтому, разумеется, я глубоко благодарен ученым, помощь которых сделала ее возможной. Научные консультанты проекта «Эволюция» очень помогли всем нам в создании и книги, и фильма; среди них Чарльз Аквадро, Уильям Кальвин, Шарон Эмерсон, Джейн Гудолл, Сара Блаффер Хрди, Дон Йохансон, Мэри‑Клэр Кинг, Кен Миллер, Стивен Пинкер, Юджиния Скотт и Дэвид Уэйк. Особая благодарность Стивену Джею Гулду, который не только помогал советами, но и украсил эту книгу своим вступительным словом.

Я хочу поблагодарить всех ученых, упомянутых в фильме и книге. Я также благодарен специалистам, которые любезно согласились растолковать мне смысл своих исследований или просмотреть часть рукописи. В их числе Крис Адами, Мейдианн Андраде, Конни Барлоу, Вутер Бликер, Эд Броуди‑мл., Эд Броуди III, Дэвид Берни, Джозеф Кейн, Шон Кэрролл, Стив Кейз, Крис Чен‑ДеВрис, Роберт Коуи, Карла Дантонио, Робин Данбар, Дэвид Дюзенбери, Стивен Эмлен, Дуглас Эрвин, Брайан Фаррелл, Джон Флинн, Беатрис Хан, Кристен Хокс, Николас Холланд, Дэвид Иноуйе, Кристин Дженис, Кеннет Канеширо, Джуди Кегль, Ричард Клейн, Эндрю Нолл, Терстон Лакалли, Лора Ландвебер, Стюарт Леви, Майкл Линч, Аксель Мейер, Кеннет Миллер, Стивен Мойзис, Андерс Моллер, Ульрих Мюллер, Мартин Новак, Стивен О'Брайен, Морин О'Лири, Норман Пейс, Нипам Патель, Марион Петри, Стюарт Пимм, Дэвид Резник, Марк Ридли, Дольф Шлютер, Курт Швенк, Юджиния Скотт, Джон Томпсон, Франс де Вааль, Питер Уорд, Эндрю Витен, Брэд Уильямсон и Марк Уинстон. Особая благодарность Кевину Падиану, который прочел всю рукопись целиком и, делая пометки, вероятно, исписал не одну красную ручку.

Гейл Уинстон, мой редактор в издательстве HarperCollins, своим бесценным руководством помогла мне превратить сопроводительный сборник в самостоятельную книгу. Спасибо. Спасибо также моему агенту Эрику Симоноффу.

И наконец, глубочайшая благодарность моей жене Грейс. Это был нелегкий год, но она неизменно помнила о главном.

ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА

Глава 1: ДАРВИН И «БИГЛЬ»

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Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1936.

Lyell C. Principles of geology; or, The modern changes of the earth and its inhabitants, considered as illustrative of geology. London: John Murray, 1850.

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Paley W. Natural theology; or, Evidences of the existence and attributes of the Deity. London: Wilks and Taylor, 1802.

Rudwick M.J.S. The great Devonian controversy: The shaping of scientific knowledge among gentlemanly specialists. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.

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Thomson K.S. HMS Beagle: The story of Darwin's ship. New York: Norton, 1995.

Глава 2: «ЭТО КАК СОЗНАТЬСЯ В УБИЙСТВЕ»

Bowler P.J. The eclipse of Darwinism: Anti‑Darwinian evolution theories in the decades around 1900. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.

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Desmond A.J. Huxley: The devil's disciple. New York: Penguin, 1994.

Moore J.R. Darwin. London: Michael Joseph, 1991.

Jones S. Darwin's ghost. New York: HarperCollins, 2000.

Malthus T.R. An essay on the principle of population as it affects the future improvement of society. London: J. Johnson, 1798.

Ospovat D. The development of Darwin's theory: Natural history, natural theology, and natural selection, 1838–1859. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Rupke N.A. Richard Owen: Victorian naturalist. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994.

Глава 3: ПОГРУЖАЯСЬ ВГЛУБЬ ВРЕМЕН

Bowring S.A., Housh Т. "The Earth's early evolution." Science, 1995,269: 1535–1540.

Briggs D.E.G., Erwin D.H., Collier F.J. The fossils of the Burgess Shale. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994.

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Budd C.E., Jensen S. "A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla." Biological Reviews of the Cambrian Philosophical Society, 2000, 75:253–295.

Burchfield J.O. Lord Kelvin and the age of the Earth. New York: Science History Publications, 1975.

Carroll R.L. Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. New York: Freeman, 1988.

Dalrymple G.B. The age of the Earth. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1991.

Fortey R.A. Life: A natural history of the first four billion years of life on Earth. New York: Knopf, 1998.

Gould SJ. Wonderful life: The Burgess Shale and the nature of history. New York: Norton, 1989.

Knoll A.H. "A new molecular window on early life." Science, 1999, 285: 1025–1026.

LunineJ.I. Earth: Evolution of a habitable world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

McPhee J.A. Annals of the former world. New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1998.

Prothero D.R., Prothero D.A. Bringing fossils to life: An introduction to paleobiology. New York: McGraw‑Hill, 1997.

Schopf J.W. Cradle of life: The discovery of Earth's earliest fossils. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.

"Solution to Darwin's dilemma: Discovery of the missing Precambrian record of life." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2000,97:6947–6953.

Xiao S., Zhang Y., Knoll AH. "Three‑dimensional preservation of algae and animal embryos in a Neoproterozoic phosphorite." Nature, 1998, 391:553–558.

Zimmer C. "Ancient continent opens window on the early earth." Science, 1999,286:2254–2256.

Глава 4: СВИДЕТЕЛИ ПЕРЕМЕН

Adami С. Introduction to artificial life. New York: Springer, 1998.

Ofria C, Collier TC. "Evolution of biological complexity." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2000, 97: 4463–4468.

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Albertson R.C., Markert J.A., Danley P.D., Kocher T.D. "Phylogeny of a rapidly evolving clade: The cichlid fishes of Lake Malawi, East Africa." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1999, 96: 5107–5110.

Bowler, P.J. The Norton history of the environmental sciences. New York: Norton, 1993.

Cook L.M., Bishop J.A. Genetic consequences of man‑made change. London, England & Toronto: Academic Press, 1981.

Coyne J.A., Orr H.A. "The evolutionary genetics of speciation." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences, 1998,353:287–305.

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Depew D.J., Weber B.H. Darwinism evolving: Systems dynamics and the genealogy of natural selection. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995.

Dieckmann U., Doebeli M. "On the origin of species by sympatric speciation." Nature, 1999,400:354–357.

Dobzhansky T.G. Genetics and the origin of species. New York: Columbia University Press, 1937.

Goldschmidt T. Darwin's dreampond: Drama in Lake Victoria. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996.

Grant P.R., Grant B.R. "Non‑random fitness variation in two populations of Darwin's finches." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, 2000,267:131–138.

Royal Society (Great Britain). Discussion Meeting. Evolution on islands. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Harris R.S., Kong Q., Maizels N. "Somatic hypermutation and the three R's: repair, replication and recombination." Mutation Research, 1999, 436:157–178.

Henig R.M. The monk in the garden: How Gregor Mendel and his pea plants solved the mystery of inheritance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.

Howard D.J., Berlocher S.H. Endless forms: Species and speciation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

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Janeway C. Immunobiology: The immune system in health and disease. New York: Garland, 1999.

Johnson T.C., Kelts K., Odada E. "The Holocene history of Lake Victoria.» Ambio, 2000,29:2‑11.

Kondrashov A.S., Kondrashov F.A. "Interactions among quantitative traits in the course of sympatric speciation." Nature, 1999,400:351–354.

Koza J.R. Genetic programming III: Darwinian invention and problem solving. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, 1999.

Lenski RE., Ofria C., Collier T.C., Adami C. "Genome complexity, robustness and genetic interactions in digital organisms." Nature, 1999,400:661–664.

Mayr E. Systematics and the origin of species, from the viewpoint of a zoologist. New York: Columbia University Press, 1942.

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Provine W.B. The origins of theoretical population genetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.

Rensberger B. Life itself: Exploring the realm of the living cell. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Reznick D.N., Shaw F.H., Rodd F.H., Shaw R.G. "Evaluation of the rate of evolution in natural populations of guppies (Poecilia reticulata)." Science, 1997,275:1934–1937.

Ridley M. Evolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Science, 1998.

Sato A., Ohigin C., Figueroa F., Grant PR., Grant B.R., Tichy H„et al. "Phylogeny of Darwin's finches as revealed by mtDN A sequences." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1999,96:5101–5106.

Simpson G.G. Tempo and mode in evolution. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.

Stiassny M., Meyer A. "Cichlids of rift lakes." Scientific American, 1999, 280:64–69.

Taubes G. "Evolving a conscious machine." Discover, June 1998, 73–79.

Wade M.J., Goodnight C.J. "Wright's shifting balance theory: An experimental study." Science, 1991,253:1015–1018.

Weiner J. The beak of the finch: A story of evolution in our time. New York: Knopf, 1994.

Time, love, memory: A great biologist and his quest for the origins of behavior. New York: Knopf, 1999.

Глава 5: КАК УКОРЕНЯЛОСЬ ДРЕВО ЖИЗНИ

Andersson S.G., Zomorodipour A., Andersson J.O., Sicheritz‑Ponten Т., Alsmark U.C., Podowski R.M., et al. "The genome sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii and the origin of mitochondria." Nature, 1998; 396:133–140.

Barns S.M., Fundyga R.E., Jeffries M.W., Pace N.R. "Remarkable archaeal diversity detected in a Yellowstone National Park hot spring environment." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1994,91:1609–1613.

Cech T.R. "The ribosome is a ribozyme." Science, 2000,289:878–879.

Doolittie W.F. "Uprooting the tree of life." Scientific American, February 2000,90–95.

Freeland S.J., Knight R.D., Landweber L.F. "Do proteins predate DNA?" Science, 1999,286:690–692.

Ganfornina M.D., Sanchez D. "Generation of evolutionary novelty by functional shift." Bioessays, 1999,21:432–439.

Gee H. In search of deep time: Beyond the fossil record to a new history of life. New York: Free Press, 1999.

Gesteland R.F., Cech Т., Atkins J.F. The RNA world: The nature of modern RNA suggests a prebiotic RNA. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1999.

Holland P.W. "Gene duplication: Past, present and future" Seminars in Cellular and Developmental Biology, 1999,10:541–547.

Kerr R.A. "Early life thrived despite earthly travails." Science, 1999,284: 2111–2113.

Laudweber L.F. "Testing ancient RNA‑protein interactions." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1999,96:11067‑11078.

Lazcano A., Miller S.L. "The origin and early evolution of life: prebiotic chemistry, the pre‑RNA world, and time." Cell, 1996,85:793–798.

Levin B.R., Bergstrom C.T. "Bacteria are different: Observations, interpretations, speculations, and opinions about the mechanisms of adaptive evolution in prokaryotes." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2000,97:6981–6985.

Margulis L. Symbiotic planet: A new look at evolution. New York: Basic Books, 1998.

Maynard Smith J., Szathmary E. The origins of life: From the birth of life to the origin of language. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Mojzsis S.J., Arrhenius G., McKeegan K.D., Harrison T.M., Nutman A.P., Friend C.R. "Evidence for life on Earth before 3,800 million years ago.» Nature, 1996,384:55–59.

Muller M., Martin W. "The genome of Rickettsia prowazekii and some thoughts on the origin of mitochondria and hydrogenosomes." Bioessays, 1999,21:377–381.

Pace N.R. "A molecular view of microbial diversity and the biosphere" Science, 1997,276:734–740.

Sapp J. Evolution by association: A history of symbiosis. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Wills C., Bada J. The spark of life: Darwin and the primeval soup. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Publishing, 2000.

Woese C. "The universal ancestor." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1998,95:6854–6859.

Глава 6: СЛУЧАЙНЫЙ ИНСТРУМЕНТАРИЙ

Allman J.M. Evolving brains. New York: Scientific American Library/ Freeman, 1999.

Arthur W. The origin of animal body plans: A study in evolutionary developmental biology. Cambridge, England & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Averof M., Patel N.H. "Crustacean appendage evolution associated with changes in Hox gene expression." Nature, 1997,388:682–686.

Bateson W. Materialsfor the study of variation treated with especial regard to discontinuity in the origin of species. London: Macmillan, 1894.

Briggs D.E.C., Erwin D.H., Collier F.J. The fossils of the Burgess Shale. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994.

Budd G.E., Jensen S. "A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla." Biological Reviews of the Cambrian Philosophical Society, 2000,75:253–295.

Butterfield N.J. "Plankton ecology and the Proterozoic to Phanerozoic transition." Paleobiology, 1997,23:247–262.

Carroll R.L. Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. New York: Freeman, 1988.

Conway Morris S. "The Cambrian 'explosion': Slow fuse or megatonnage?" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2000,97:4426–4429.

The crucible of creation: The Burgess Shale and the rise of animals. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

"Showdown on the Burgess Shale: The challenge." Natural History, December 1998:48–55.

Eldredge N. Time frames: The rethinking of Darwinian evolution and the theory of punctuated equilitria. London: Heinemann, 1986.

Fortey R.A. Life: A natural history of the first four billion years of life on Earth. New York: Knopf, 1998.

Ganfornina M.D., Sanchez D. "Generation of evolutionary novelty by functional shift." Bioessays, 1999,21:432–439.

Gee H. Before the backbone: Views on the origin of the vertebrates. London; New York: Chapman & Hall, 1996.

Shaking the tree: Readings from nature in the history of life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Gehring W.J. Master control genes in development and evolution: The homeobox story. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998.

Gerhart J., Kirschner M. Cells, embryos, and evolution: Toward a cellular and developmental understanding of phenotypic variation and evolutionary adaptability. Maiden, Mass.: Blackwell Science, 1997.

Gould S.J. Ontogeny and phytogeny. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1977.

Wonderful life: The Burgess Shale and the nature of history.

New York: Norton, 1989.

Hoffman P.F., Kaufman A.J., Halverson G.P., Schrag D.P. "A neoproterozoic snowball earth.» Science, 1998,281:1342–1346.

Holland L.Z., Holland N.D. "Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system." Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 1999,9:596–602.

Keys D.N., Lewis D.L., Selegue J.E., Pearson B.J., Goodrich L.V., Johnson R.L., et al. "Recruitment of a hedgehog regulatory circuit in butterfly eyespot evolution.» Science, 1999,283:532–534.

Knoll A.H., Carroll S.B. "Early animal evolution: Emerging views from comparative biology and geology." Science, 1999,284:2129–2137.

Lundin L.G. "Gene duplications in early metazoan evolution." Seminars in Cellular and Developmental Biology, 1999,10:523–530.

McNamaraKJ. Shapes of time: The evolution of growth and development. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.

O'Leary M., UhenM. "The time of origin of whales and the role of behavioral changes in the terrestrial‑aquatic transition." Paleobiology, 1999, 25: 534–556.

Prothero D.R., Prothero D.A. Bringing fossils to life: An introduction to paleobiology. New York: McGraw‑Hill, 1997.

Shankland M., Seaver E.C. "Evolution of the bilaterian body plan: What have we learned from annelids?" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2000,97:4434–4437.

Shubin N., Tabin C., Carroll S. "Fossils, genes and the evolution of animal limbs." Nature, 1997,388:639–648.

Sumida S.S., Martin K.L.M. Amniote origins: Completing the transition to land. San Diego: Academic Press, 1997.

Williams G.C. The pony fish's glow: And other clues to plan and purpose in nature. New York: Basic Books, 1997.

Zimmer C. At the water's edge: Macroevolution and the transformation of life. New York: Free Press, 1998. "In search of vertebrate origins: Beyond brain and bone."

Science, 2000,287:1576–1579.

Глава 7: ВЫМИРАНИЕ

Bowring S.A., Erwin D.H., Isozaki Y. "The tempo of mass extinction and recovery: The end‑Permian example." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1999,96:8827–8828.

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Глава 9: ДОКТОР ДАРВИН

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Глава 10: ЛОГИКА СТРАСТИ

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Глава 11: РАЗГОВОРЧИВАЯ ОБЕЗЬЯНА

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Глава 12: СОВРЕМЕННАЯ ЖИЗНЬ ЗА 50000 ЛЕТ до н. э.

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Глава 13: КАК НАСЧЕТ БОГА?

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