Главная Случайная страница


Полезное:

Как сделать разговор полезным и приятным Как сделать объемную звезду своими руками Как сделать то, что делать не хочется? Как сделать погремушку Как сделать так чтобы женщины сами знакомились с вами Как сделать идею коммерческой Как сделать хорошую растяжку ног? Как сделать наш разум здоровым? Как сделать, чтобы люди обманывали меньше Вопрос 4. Как сделать так, чтобы вас уважали и ценили? Как сделать лучше себе и другим людям Как сделать свидание интересным?


Категории:

АрхитектураАстрономияБиологияГеографияГеологияИнформатикаИскусствоИсторияКулинарияКультураМаркетингМатематикаМедицинаМенеджментОхрана трудаПравоПроизводствоПсихологияРелигияСоциологияСпортТехникаФизикаФилософияХимияЭкологияЭкономикаЭлектроника






The common features of Germanic languages





Old German languages show differences in comparison with other European Lang on 3 main linguistic levels: grammatical, phonetic and lexical.

IN PHONETICS:

accent (word stress) in IE was characterized by free and musical accent (fixed & unfixed); in PG accent became fixed on the root syllable and dynamic, strong (силовое); characteristics of musical accent disappeared in Gmc languages

Indo-European (Non-Germanic) Proto-Germanic
1. free stress (movable, i.e. can appear in any part of a word (root, prefix, suffix)); 1. fixed stress (can’t move either in form- or word-building and is usually placed on root or prefix);
2. pitch stress (musical) 2. dynamic stress (force, breath stress)
E.g.: русский E.g.: German English
б`елый `Liebe `white
белизн`а `lieben `whiteness
белов`атый `lieberhaft `whitish
бел`ить ge`liebt `whitewash

 

The Proto-Germanic type of stress led to the formation of the following peculiarities of the Germanic languages as compared to non-Germanic Indo-European languages:

phonetic – as a result of the fixed position of the stress the unstressed syllables were becoming weaker and weaker, they got less distinct and neutral sounds (such as “schwa”) appeared;

morphological – as a result of the fact that the stress was fixed on the root and the syllables following the root were always unstressed and weak, many Germanic languages began to lose suffixes and grammatical endings (all the vocalic endings) and became ANALYTICAL LANGUAGES.

Grimm’s and Verner’s laws.

Grimm’s law: The first Germanic consonant shifts took place in the V-II cent. BC. Jacobs Grimm’s Law in 1822. According to Grimm, he classified consonant correspondences between indoeuropean and germanic stops (plosives).

There are 3 acts of this law:

IE voiceless plosives p, t, k correspond to Gmc voiceless fricatives f, Ө, h. Eg: пламя – flame, три – three, кардио – heart.

IE voiced plosives b, d, g, →Gmc voiceless fricatives p, t, k. Eg: болото- pool, kar d ia – hear t, e g o – i c (ik).

IE aspirated voiced plosives bh, dh, gh →to voiced plosives without aspiration b d g. Eg: bhrāta – brother, rudhira – red, ghostis – guest.

The second consonant shift was Carl Verner’s law (only in Old High German). According C.Verner all the common Gmc consonants became voiced in intervocalic position if the preceding vowel was unstressed (a change takes place in the course of time).

p-f > v septem

t-Ө> đ, d сто – hund (OE)

k-x> j, g

s-s> z/r auris – ēare

Consonant Correspondences Latin OE ModE
1. [p, t, k] à voiceless stops/plosives [f, q, h] à voiceless fricatives [v, ð/d, g] voiced fricatives se p tem seo f en se v en
pa t er f æ đ er fa th er
so c rus swai h o (Gothic) Schwa g er (Germ)
2. Rhotacism au s is (Lithuanian) Au s o (Gothic) ea r, Oh r (Germ)
[s] à [z] à [r]

Devoicing took place in early common Gmc when the stress was not yet fixed on the root.

A variety of Verner’s law is rhotacism (greek letter rho). [s] →[z]→[r] we find traces of this phenomenon in form of the verb to be →was – were, is – are; ist – sind – war.

II consonant shift occurd in dialects of sothern Gmc. Eg: еда – eat – essen, вода – water – wasser, hope – hoffen, bed – bett.

Ch (G) → C (OE): reich – ricostan.

Palatal Mutation/i-Umlaut

Mutation – a change of one vowel to another one under the influence of a vowel in the following syllable.

Palatal mutation (or i-Umlaut) happened in the 6th -7th c. and was shared by all Old Germanic Languages, except Gothic. I-mutation is a change of root back vowels to front ones or root open vowels to closer ones under the influence of i/j in the next syllable.

Palatal mutation – fronting and raising of vowels under the influence of [i] and [j] in the following syllable (to approach the articulation of these two sounds). As a result of palatal mutation:

[i] and [j] disappeared in the following syllable sometimes leading to the doubling of a consonant in this syllable;

new vowels appeared in OE ([ie, y]) as a result of merging and splitting:

before palatal mutation after palatal mutation Gothic OE
a à o à æ à   e b a di b e dd (bed)
a: à æ: d a ils d æ lan (deal)
ŏ/ō à ĕ/ē m ō tjan m ē tan (meet)
ŭ/ū à ŷ/ỹ(labialised) (new!) f u lljan f y llan (fill)
ĕă/ēā à ĕŏ/ēō à ĭě/īē (new!) ea ld (early OE) ie ldra (late OE)

Traces of i-Umlaut in Modern English:

irregular Plural of nouns (man – men; tooth – teeth);

irregular verbs and adjectives (told ←tell; sold ←sell; old – elder);

word-formation with sound interchange (long – length; blood – bleed).

IN GRAMMAR:

A synthetic grammatical system (relationships between the parts of the sentence were shown by the forms of the words rather than by their position or by auxiliary words). In the early periods of history the grammatical forms were built by means of: sound interchanges, inflections and suppletion.

Suppletion (inherited from Indo-European) – the usage of 2 or more different roots as forms of one and the same word:

Part of Speech Indo-European Non-Germanic Languages Germanic Languages
Italian русский English German
Personal Pronouns io, mio, mi/me я, меня, мне I, my, mine, me ich, mich, mir
Adjectives buono, migliore, ottimo хороший, лучше, лучший good, better, best gut, besser, bester
Some Verbs essere, sono, e`, ero, saro`, etc. есть, был, будет be, is, are, am, was, were sein, bin, ist, sind, war, gewesen, etc.

Inflections (inherited from Indo-European) – though in the Germanic languages inflections were simpler and shorter than in other Indo-European languages.

Let’s take the system of declensions as an example. In PG it was well-developed but in the Old Germanic languages, due to the stress that was fixed on the root and the weakening of the end of a word as a result, the declensions started to disappear. While the nouns and adjectives still preserved stem-suffixes, they had declensions but once the stem suffixes started to weaken and disappear, the declensions were lost as well and the endings were simplified and got fewer:

Word Structure
PG mak-oj-an root + stem-suffix (word-deriv.) + gram. ending(form-marker)
Old Germanic Languages mac-ian stem (root melted with stem-suffix) + gram. ending

Sound Interchange – the usage of interchange of vowels and consonants for the purpose of word- and form-building (e.g.: English: b ea r – b i rth, buil d – buil t, t oo th – t ee th; German: geb ä ren – Geb u rt)

Ablaut/Vowel Gradation – an independent vowel interchange, unconnected with any phonetic conditions (phonetic environment/surrounding) used to differentiate between grammatical forms of one and the same word. The Germanic ablaut was consistently used in building the principle forms of strong verbs.

Jacob Grimm has subdivided all the verbs into two groups according to the way they build their principle forms:

  Strong Verbs (irregular) Weak Verbs (regular)
called so because they have preserved the richness of forms since the time of Proto-Germanic called so because they have lost their old Proto-Germanic forms and acquired new ones
form-building vowel interchange + gram. ending suffix –d/t (a Germanic invention!!!)
E.g. OE r ei san – r ai s – r i sum – r i sans macian – maco d e - maco d
  cepan – cep t e - cep t
ModE r i se – r o se - r i sen make – ma d e – ma d e
  keep – kep t – kep t

The most important innovation in Gmc was the emergence of the new types of verbs – “weak”, past tense with the dental suffix d: open – opened, work – worked.

IN LEXIS:

Native words

In all Gmc languages we find a number of words which are not found in the other IE languages, have no parallels outside the group. Appeared from purely Gmc roots, spheres: nature, sea, home life (sea, house, God, send, drink, broad, own).

The most ancient etymological layer in the Gmc vocabulary is made up by words (roots) shared by most IE languages (natural phenomena, animals & plants, some pronouns and numerals): Fr deux – R два– OE twa – NE two.

Borrowings

Latin words (refer to trade and warfare). The words reflect the contacts of the Gmc tribes with Rome and the influence of the Roman civilization on their life. Ex: Lat strata via – OE stræt – NE street

Date: 2015-07-27; view: 433; Нарушение авторских прав; Помощь в написании работы --> СЮДА...



mydocx.ru - 2015-2024 year. (0.005 sec.) Все материалы представленные на сайте исключительно с целью ознакомления читателями и не преследуют коммерческих целей или нарушение авторских прав - Пожаловаться на публикацию