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The skeleton and muscles





 

The human skeleton is made up of more than 200 bones. It gives our muscles a firm place to anchor themselves and also protects our body’s more fragile organs. For example, the brain is protected by the skull and the lungs are protected by the ribs. The bones of our skeleton vary in shape and size to fit their function. The spine has 33 separate bones. It is shaped to protect the spinal cord, which travels through it, while also giving the spinal muscles a place for attachment.

The male skeleton is different to the female skeleton. Foe example, the female pelvis is specially designed to allow a baby’s safe journey down the birth canal.

Bones have an outer layer called the periosteum. This contains nerves and blood vessels. Underneath lies the toughest part – compact bone. This part is hollow and is lined with spongy bone, which makes it strong but not too heavy. Cells in the bone take calcium and phosphorus from the blood to keep the bony substance hard. Bone marrow lies as the centre of bone. The bone marrow at the end of long bones is responsible for making new blood cells.

We have lots of muscles of different shapes and sizes, ranging from the large gluteus maximus on which we sit, to the tiny muscles that control the movements of our eyes. Many of our movements – when riding a bicycle for example – involve a number of muscles that have to work together, and these are controlled by the brain. Every muscle in our body is made up of muscle fibers. Messages from the brain can make muscle fibres contract, making them shorter. As they shorten they become more powerful and are able to pull the bones to which they are attached. This causes movement.

Although we can control many of our muscles, we also have muscles in our body that work automatically. These include the muscles that make our heart beat and the muscles in our intestine that help us to digest food.

 

 

II. COMPREHENSION CHECK.

1. Decide which of the following interpretations is most likely to be true:

 

a) The skeleton is a firm structure to which muscles are attached.

b) The skeleton does not determine the shape and movements of the body.

c) The skeleton protects more delicate organs from injury.

d) 33 separate bones of the spine are shaped to protect the brain.

e) Bones do not have any outer layer.

f) The bone marrow is responsible for making new blood cells.

g) The outer layer of the bones contains nerves and blood vessels.

h) Cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, glands work automatically.

 

2. Give answers to the questions below:

a) What role does the human skeleton play?

b) What is the structure of the bones?

c) What causes the movement?

d) Which muscles work automatically?

e) How do muscles range in size and shape?

f) Do male and female skeletons differ?

 

3. Find in each paragraph the sentence which conveys the main idea.

 

III. LANGUAGE FOCUS.

1. Form the derivatives of the words given in the chart below (Where possible):

 

Noun Verb Adjective
muscle    
  to protect  
    Spinal
function    
  to cause  
    Short
  to digest  

 

2. Find in the text: a) synonyms and b) antonyms to the following words and word combinations:

 

a) b)
to consist of Firm
to hold to change
to possess combined bones
form Male
hard Similar
various inner layer
to differ, to distinguish compact bones
to permit, to let weak
matter Light
big Longer
small, minute to be unable
to be regulated by to exclude
to function to aid
to make Big
soft  

 

3. Complete the sentences below choosing appropriate words from the text:

 

a) ….. is protected by the ….. and the …. are protected by the …..

b) …… contains nerves and blood vessels.

c) …. is responsible for making new blood cells.

d) Messages from the brain can ….

e) The bones of our skeleton vary ….

f) Compact bone is hollow and …..

g) Many of our movements involve a number ….

h) …. to keep the bony substance hard.

 

4. Translate the sentences into English using the vocabulary of the Unit:

 

а) Кости составляют скелетную систему, которая обеспечивает структурную поддержку организма, предоставляют места для прикрепления мышц и защиту органов.

б) Плотные кости пронизаны кровяными сосудами и нервами. Их ткани толще и могут выдержать значительный вес и давление.

в) Губчатые кости содержат пространства, заполненные костным мозгом, который вовлечен в создание кровяных клеток.

д) Клетки костей забирают кальций и фосфор с тем, чтобы костное вещество оставалось прочным.

 

IV. FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES.

1. Discuss the following in pairs:

Muscles and bones work together.

2. Write an essay about the skeletal system.

 

 

ADDITIONAL TEXT

 

I. Read the text carefully. Be ready to fulfil the tasks that follow.

 

 

BONES AND MUSCLES

 

Muscles and bones work together. The bones make up the skeletal system, which provides structural support, sites for muscle attachment, and organ protection. Osseous tissue, or bone, as it is more often called, consists of cells and collagen fibers interspersed in a matrix of intercellular material containing calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate, which are responsible for hardness. Together, these substances account for two-thirds of the weight of bones, while the collagen fibers, which reinforce the tissue, account for the other third.

In addition to bone, another important connective tissue in most skeletal systems is cartilage, which unlike bone, is both firm and flexible. Bone is usually considerably harder and more brittle. Most sharks and rays have skeletal systems composed of all cartilage and no bone. Some other “primitive” groups of fish have less bone than cartilage in their skeletal systems. In most other vertebrates, however, cartilage is located only where firmness and flexibility are needed, such as in joints, nose, ears, larynx, and trachea. During the development of the skeletal system of these vertebrates, the embryos begin with cartilaginous skeletons. Gradually most of the cartilage is replaced by true bone.

Depending on the construction of the particular bony tissue, it can range in consistency from being completely spongy to being very compact. The spongy bone contains many spaces filled with marrow which is either composed of fat or involved in the production of blood cells. In the case of relatively lighter animals such as birds, the spaces may be filled with air sacs. Compact bony tissue is thicker and usually involved in support. Such bones can resist considerable weight and stress.

Compact bones are penetrated by blood vessels and nerves through small narrow openings, some of which are known as Haversian canals, whose microscopic structure is identified by the characteristic concentric rings of bony tissue surrounding them. These rings are composed of cells that were involved in producing the bony tissue. Spongy bone doesn’t contain Haversian systems, nor does cartilage. Materials are exchanged through the blood vessels and bone cells that penetrate the Haversian canals. This is the only way for materials to move to and from the cells living throughout bony tissue.

The movement of different parts of the body all depend on muscular contraction, on the location of the origins and insertions, and on the type of joint involved. Muscles usually work antagonistically. That is, when one group of muscles contracts, it will pull part of the body one way. Alternately, when the antagonistic group of muscles contracts, it will pull the same body part in the other direction.

 

 

II. POST-READING TASKS.

1. Discuss the following questions:

a) What substances are found in skeletal systems? What are their functions?

b) How do muscles work antagonistically?

2. Write an essay describing the structure of the skeletal system.

 

 

UNIT 7

 

I. PRE-READING AND READING TASKS.

1. Study the vocabulary to avoid difficulties of understanding:

 

affect (v) [q'fekt] Воздействовать
clot (v) [klPt] Свертываться
invade (v) [In'veId] Вторгаться
survive (v) [sq'vaIv] выживать, продолжать существовать
withstand (v) [wID'stxnd] Противостоять
clot [klPt] Сгусток
germ [dZE:m] микроб, бактерия
liquid ['lIkwId] Жидкость
mammal ['mxm(q)l] Млекопитающее
means [mi:nz] Средство
particle ['pQ:tIk(q)l] Частица
platelet ['pleItlIt] Тромбоцит
removal [rI'mu:v(q)l] Удаление
rupture ['rAptSq] Разрыв
scab [skxb] Корка
web [web] Сеть
pulsatile ['pAlsqtaIl] Пульсирующий
sufficient [sq'fIS(q)nt] Достаточный

 

2. Try to guess the meaning of the following words and word combinations:

 

pumping action aquatic environment
pathogenic organism self-preservation system
alkalinity to propel
non-aqueous surroundings circulatory system
acidity watery medium
bleeding right ventricle
fibrin carbon dioxide
capillary left atrium

 

3. Read the text carefully to fulfil the tasks that follow.

 

 

THE BLOOD SYSTEM

 

Our blood acts as a transport system, carrying substances around the body. It is rather like a road network, with large arteries as main roads and very small vessels as lanes. Blood itself is made up of a liquid called plasma and two main types of cell – red cells and white cells. Red cells contain a chemical called hemoglobin, which is responsible for carrying oxygen to all the body’s cells. White cells to attack invading germs. There are also small particles in blood called platelets, which help the blood to clot when we cut ourselves.

The bleeding stops when enough platelets have stuck to the broken walls and signalled other substances to come. These substances form strands called fibrin, which form a web over the red blood cells to create a clot.

The walls of arteries and veins are made up of three layers. Arteries carry blood away from the heart veins carry blood back to the heart. Small arteries and veins are linked by tiny tubes called capillaries.

The heart is the muscular organ that causes the blood to circulate in the body. The heart of birds and mammals is four-chambered pump composed of left and right atrium and ventricle.

All cells, in order to survive, must obtain the necessary raw materials for metabolism, and have a means for the removal of waste products. In small plants and animals living in an aquatic environment, these needs are provided for by simple diffusion. However, as the size of the organism increases, and diffusion cannot provide sufficient means for transport. Therefore, larger animals have developed a system of internal transport, the circulatory system.

Blood is the vital tissue in the circulatory system, transporting nutrients and oxygen to all the cells and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes from them. It transports hormones, which affect organs sensitive to them. Blood also acts to regulate the acidity and alkalinity of the cells via control of their salt and water content. In addition, the blood acts to regulate the body.

Some components of the blood act as a defense against bacteria, viruses, and other pathogenic organisms.

 

II. COMPREHENSION CHECK.

1. Provide evidence from the text to support or disprove the following statements:

 

a) The blood system is like a road network.

b) Hemoglobin is responsible for carrying oxygen to the lungs.

c) The main function of white cells is to destroy germs.

d) Arteries are thinner than veins.

e) The ventricles propel blood to the lungs.

f) Metabolism and the removal of waste products are provided for by simple diffusion in plants and animals.

g) The circulatory system of larger animals is an efficient system for material exchange.

h) Blood regulates the body temperature.

 

2. Use the information from the text to answer the questions:

 

a). What is blood made up of?

b). What are platelets and what do they help to do?

c). When does the bleeding stop?

d). How is a clot created?

e). What are capillaries?

f). What does the heart of mammals consist of?

g). What must all cells have in order to survive?

h). What is the circulatory system?

i). What are the main functions of blood?

j). How is blood loss reduced?

 

3. Restore the logical order of the main subtopics of the text:

 

a). Material exchange in organisms of different types.

b). Different kinds of blood vessels.

c). The main components of blood and their role.

d). Important functions of blood.

e). A clotting mechanism.

f). The role of the heart in the blood circulation.

 

III. LANGUAGE FOCUS.

1. In each box below match the words which are: a) similar or b) opposite in meaning:

 

a) b)
to link to propel aquatic to reduce
main sufficient thick lower
to move basic to increase far
job various upper thin
environment to get left internal
enough work small large
to obtain surroundings few right
to provide to name external non-aqueous
different to connect near many
to call to supply    

 

2. Match the following words with the right definitions:

 

platelets the muscular organ that causes the blood circulation
arteries small particles helping the blood to clot
capillaries blood vessels carrying blood away from the heart
circulatory system secretions of the endocrine glands
hormones tiny tubes linking small arteries and veins
hemoglobin a system of internal transport
heart a chemical responsible for carrying oxygen to all the body’s cells

 

3. Change the words in capital letters to fit the context of the sentence:

 

a) These substances form a web over the red cells ……. a clot (CREATION).

b) The heart causes the blood ……… in the body (CIRCULAR).

c) In order to survive all cells must have a means for the ……. of waste products (REMOVE).

d) The cells of small plants and animals are very near the external …. medium (WATER).

e) …… cannot provide sufficient means for transport (DIFFUSE).

f) The ….. to land requires an efficient system for …. exchange in non-aqueous …… (MOVE, MATER, SURROUND).

g) This system consists of an ……. network of …… vessels (EXTEND, VARY).

h) Blood acts to regulate the …… and ….. of the cells (ACID, ALKALINE).

 

 

4. Try to say this in English using the vocabulary of the Unit:

 

а). Кровь состоит из жидкости, называемой плазмой, и двух основных типов клеток: красных и белых кровяных клеток.

б). В крови содержатся небольшие частицы – тромбоциты, которые помогают крови сворачиваться.

в). Эти вещества образуют нити, называемые фибрином.

г). Артерии несут кровь от сердца, а вены - обратно к сердцу.

д). Все клетки должны получать необходимое сырье для метаболизма.

е). Клетки небольших растений и животных расположены близко к внешней водной среде, таким образом питательным веществам и отходам не приходится перемещаться на большое расстояние.

 

IV. FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES.

1. Name: a) the main components of the blood system and describe their functions, b) the most important functions of blood.

2. Talk about: a) the main blood vessels and their role, b) the difference in the raw materials supply and the removal of waste products in small plants and animals and larger animals.

3. Write a paragraph describing the blood system.

 

 

ADDITIONAL TEXT

 

I. Read the text carefully to fulfil the tasks that follow.

 

 

BLOOD

 

Like muscle, bone, cartilage, and nerves, blood is a type of tissue, a collection of similar types of cells and the associated intercellular substances that surround them. Tissues are categorized into four main types: 1) epithelium, 2) muscle, 3) nervous, and 4) connective. Connective tissue includes blood, lymph, bone, and cartilage. In the case of blood and lymph, the base substance, or matrix, is a liquid. What differentiates these two from other tissue types is that they are not stationary. Blood is a fluid flowing through blood vessels throughout the body (lymph runs through the lymph vessels).

Blood accounts for about 8 percent of a human’s total body weight, amounting to an average of four to six liters per adult (over a gallon), depending on individual size. Blood is thicker (more viscous) and slightly heavier than water. And, depending on the organism, blood is usually slightly warmer than the animal’s body temperature. While the core body temperature of most humans is 37oC (98.6oF), their blood is about 38oC (100.4oF). Blood pH is slightly alkaline, ranging from about 7.35 to 7.45. Its salt (NaCl) concentration normally varies from about 85 to 90 ppt (parts per thousand), or two to three times the concentration of sea water.

Plasma is the fluid portion of both blood and lymph. Fifty to sixty percent of the blood volume consists of plasma. When the proteins involved in clotting are removed from blood plasma, the remaining liquid is called serum. The plasma, which is over 90 percent water, carries a variety of ions and molecules. In addition to salts and proteins, there are many nutrients such as amino acids, fats, and glucose. There are also dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide, as well as antibodies, hormones, enzymes, and certain waste products such as urea and uric acid. The relative amount of plasma in the blood depends upon the species, the sex, the organism’s health when being examined, and on a host of other variables. The remaining 40 to 50 percent of the blood volume is composed of cells and cell fragments that can be divided into three main categories: red blood cells, or erythrocytes; white blood cells, or leukocytes; and platelets, or thrombocytes, which are fragments of cells.

 

 

II. POST-READING TASKS.

1. Define the following concepts: blood, plasma, serum.

2. Name: a) the main types of tissue, b) the kinds of connective tissue, c) the constituents of plasma, d) types of blood cells.

3. Explain what differentiates: a) blood and lymph from other tissue types, b) blood from lymph, c) blood from water.

4. Write an essay describing the structure of blood.

 

 

UNIT 8

 

I. PRE-READING AND READING TASKS.

1. Study the vocabulary which is intended to aid your comprehension of the text:

 

break up (v) ['breIk'Ap] разбивать
chew (v) [tSu:] жевать
expel [Ik'spel] удалять
repair (v) [rI'peq] восстанавливать
secrete (v) [sI'kri:t] выделять
swallow (v) ['swPlqV] глотать
bump [bAmp] выпуклость
chyme [kaIm] пищевая кащица
coiled-up tubing ['kOIld 'Ap 'tju:bIN] свернутые трубки
esophagus (pl. esophagi) [I'sPfqgqs] [I'sPfqgaI] пищевод
fundus ['fAndqs] дно
lining ['laInIN] выстилка
pancreas ['pxNkrIqs] поджелудочная железа
sac [sxk] мешочек
stomach ['stAmqk] желудок
villi ['vIlaI] ворсинки
crescent ['kres(q)nt] серповидный
esophageal [I"sPfq'dZi:ql] относящийся к пищеводу
gastric ['gxstrIk] желудочный
longitudinal ["lPndZI'tju:d(q)nql] продольный
oblique [q'bli:k] наклонный, косой
pyloric [paI'lPrIk] пилорический
tubular ['tju:bjVlq] трубчатый

 

2. Make sure you know the meaning of these words and word combinations:

 

carbohydrates bloodstream
enzyme circular
gastric juice contraction of muscles
rectum sphincter
hydrochloric acid carbohydrates

 

3. Read the text carefully to fulfil the tasks that follow.

 

 

Date: 2016-11-17; view: 1335; Нарушение авторских прав; Помощь в написании работы --> СЮДА...



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