Phrasal units with a simple or complex sentence structure

• Ex.: There is a black sheep in every flock.
• It was the last straw that broke the camel’s back

3 principal types of idiom classification: 1)grammatical, etymological, semantical or lexical. He gives examples of adjective phrases: (mad as March hair (не в своем уме)); adverbial phrases (on the alert (на страже)); verb phrases (to show the white further (струсить)); noun phrases (blue-devils (уныние).

Free phrases (group of words permitting substitution of any of its elements without semantic change in the other element or elements): She was not managing to cut much of a figure = to cut a poor figure (to be inimportant)

1. Etymology of English idioms.

The consideration of the origin of phraseological units contributes to a better understanding of phraseological meaning. According to their origin all phraseological units may be divided into two big groups: native and borrowed.
The main sources of native phraseological units are:
1) terminological and professional lexics, e.g. physics: center of gravity (центр тяжести), specific weight (удельный вес); navigation: cut the painter (обрубить канат) — 'to become independent', lower one's colours (спустить свой флаг) — 'to yield, to give in'; military sphere:, fall into line (стать в строй) — 'conform with others';
2) British literature, e.g. the green-eyed monster — 'jealousy" (W. Shakespeare); like Hamlet without the prince — 'the most important person at event is absent' (W.Shakespeare); fall on evil days— 'live in poverty after having enjoyed better times' (J.Milton); a sight for sore eyes — 'a person or thing that one is extremely pleased or relieved to see' (J.Swift); how goes the enemy? (Ch. Dickens) — 'what is the time?'; never say die — 'do not give up hope in a difficult situation' (Ch.Dickens);
3) British traditions and customs, e.g. baker's dozen — 'a group of thirteen'. In the past British merchants of bread received from bakers thirteen loaves instead of twelve and the thirteenth loaf was merchants' profit.
4) superstitions and legends, e.g. a black sheep — 'a less successful or more immoral person in a family or a group'. People believed that a black sheep was marked by the devil; the halcyon days — 'a very happy or successful period in the past'. According to an ancient legend a halcyon (зимородок) hatches/grows its fledglings in a nest that sails in the sea and during this period (about two weeks) the sea is completely calm;
5) historical facts and events, personalities, e.g. as well be hanged {or hung) for a sheep as a lamb — 'something that you say when you are going to be punished for something so you decide to do something worse because your punishment will not be any more severe'. According to an old law a person who stole a sheep was sentenced to death by hanging, so it was worth stealing something more because there was no worse punishment; to do a Thatcher — 'to stay in power as prime minister for three consecutive terms (from the former Conservative prime minister Margaret Thatcher)';
6) phenomena and facts of everyday life, e.g. carry coals to Newcastle — 'to take something to a place where there is plenty of it available'. Newcastle is a town in Northern England where a lot of coal was produced; to get out of wood — 'to be saved from danger or difficulty'.
The main sources of borrowed phraseological units are: 1) the Holy Script, e. g. the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing — 'communication in an organization is bad so that one part does not know what is happening in another part'; the kiss of Judas — 'any display of affection whose purpose is to conceal any act of treachery' (Matthew XXVI: 49);
2) ancient legends and myths belonging to different religious or
cultural traditions, e.g. to cut the Gordian knot — 'to deal with a
difficult problem in a strong, simple and effective way' (from the legend
saying that Gordius, king of Gordium, tied an intricate knot and
prophesied that whoever untied it would become the ruler of Asia. It
was cut through with a sword by Alexander the Great); a Procrustean
bed — 'a harsh, inhumane system into which the individual is fitted by
force, regardless of his own needs and wishes' (from Greek Mythology.
Procrustes — a robber who forced travelers to lie on a bed and made
them fit by stretching their limbs or cutting off the appropriate length
of leg);
3) facts and events of the world history, e.g. to cross the Rubicon — 'to do something which will have very important results which cannot be changed after'. Julius Caesar started a war which resulted in victory for him by crossing the river Rubicon in Italy; to meet one's Waterloo — 'be faced with, esp. after previous success, a final defeat, a difficulty or obstacle one cannot overcome (from the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo 1815)';
4) variants of the English language, e.g. a heavy hitter— 'someone who is powerful and has achieved a lot' {American); a hole card — 'a secret advantage that is ready to use when you need it' (American); be home and hosed — 'to have completed something successfully' (Australian);
5) other languages (classical and modern), e.g. second to none —
'equal with any other and better than most' (from Latin: nulli
secundus); for smb's fair eyes — 'because of personal sympathy, not
be worth one's deserts, services, for nothing' (from French: pour les
beaux yeux de qn.); the fair sex — 'women' (from French: le beau sex);
let the cat out of the bag — 'reveal a secret carelessly or by mistake'
(from German: die Katze aus dem Sack lassen); tilt at windmills —
'to waste time trying to deal with enemies or problems that do no exist'
(from Spanish: acometer molinos de viento); every dog is a lion at
home — 'to feel significant in the familiar surrounding' (from Italian:
ogni сапе e leone a casa sua).

16. Proverbs and sayings.

A proverb is a collocation of words that has been disseminated forth, and states general truth or gives advice: a penny saved is a penny gained. Ask no questions hear no lie. Salience is sometimes an answer.

A saying is any common, colloquial, or a remark often made for exp: A cat won’t jump. The fat is in the fire(быть беде, дело скверно).What will Mrs. Grundy!(что станет говорить княгиня Марья Алексеевна!(Горе от ума WOE FROM WIT, грибоедов)

As well as other phraseological units proverbs and saying are introduced in speech ready-made, their components are constant and their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative. Proverbs often form the basis for phraseological units: it is the last straw that brakes the camel’s back, there is no use of crying over split milk.

Generally proverbs are emotionally coloured.

Proverbs are short sayings that express popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way: easy come, easy go; Better be alone than in bad company. The effectiveness of a proverb lies in its brevity and directness.

Many proverbs and saying are methaphorical: time is money, little drops make the mighty ocean, it takes two to tango (the meaning of the metaphor is that it takes two people each doing his\her part to make relationship work out), word can cut like a knife,

(quotations differ from proverbs in their origen; they come literature and in the course of time become part and parcel of the language (few things are harder to put up with that a good example – (M. Twain), (Eat to live, not live to eat (Socrates).