Контрольная работа №2. I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого

Вариант

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. During the working hours people are not allowed off the premises.

2. Two typical failures of managers have been described in the journal.

3. The company was led by the Sales Manager.

II. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения.

1. Personal crises can affect the way we cope with things.

2. An employer told an employee that he must not come to work in a collar and tie to drive his 17 –tonne lorry.

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание наформы причастий.

1. Being kept waiting, being connected to voice mail or being passed on to someone else are all common flashpoints.

2. Calvin Klein has, for a long time, had problems with counterfeiters selling poor quality merchandise bearing his brand name.

3. The new logo was pat of a campaign to promote Ireland as a modern country offering good food and company.

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание насослагательное наклонение.

1. If you present yourself properly, you look good and get respect.

2. If he did so, he faced the sack.

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

Employment

Since individuals typically earn their incomes from working for companies whose requirements are constantly changing, it is quite possible that at any given time not all members of a country's potential work force will be able to find an employer that needs their labor. This would be less problematic in an economy in which such individuals had unlimited access to resources such as land in order to provide for themselves, but when the ownership of the bulk of its productive capacity resides in relatively few hands, most individuals will be dependent on employment for their economic well-being. It is typical for true capitalist economies to have rates of unemployment that fluctuate between 3% and 15%. Some economists have used the term "natural rate of unemployment" to describe this phenomenon.

Depressed or stagnant economies have been known to reach unemployment rates as high as 30%, while events such as military mobilization (a good example is that of World War II) have resulted in just 1-2% unemployment, a level that is often termed "full employment". Typical unemployment rates in Western economies range between 5% and 10%. Some economists consider that a certain level of unemployment is necessary for the proper functioning of capitalist economies. Equally, some politicians have claimed that the "natural rate of unemployment" highlights the inefficiency of a capitalist economy, since not all its resources – in this case human labor – are being allocated efficiently.

Some libertarian economists argue that higher unemployment rates are in part the result of minimum wage laws, as well as in part the result of misguided monetary policy, and are not inevitable in a capitalist economy. They also claim that if the value of the productive capacity of a given employee is worth less to the employer than the minimum wage, that person will become unemployed, and therefore unemployment will exist whenever the legal minimum wage exceeds the true economic value of the least productive members of the labor pool. Likewise, if the amount of money a person can obtain on welfare approaches or equals what they could make by working, that person's incentive to work will be reduced.

Some unemployment is voluntary, such as when a potential job is turned down because the unemployed person is seeking a better job, is voluntarily living on savings, or has a non-wage-earning role, such as in the case of a traditional homemaker. Some measures of employment disregard these categories of unemployment, counting only people who are actively seeking work and have been unable to find any.

VI. Ответьте на вопросы после текста

1. What is the natural rate of unemployment?
What sort of events can lead to full employment?

2. How can minimum wage laws affect unemployment rates?

3. When will person's incentive to work be reduced?

Вариант

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The company’s new sales team was made up of representatives of both companies.

2. Negotiations are designed to make it difficult for you to concentrate.

3. The results of business have exceeded all expectations.

II. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения.

1. Should sales staff met informally after work once a month to consider how to improve customer service?

2. What can be done to keep staff longer?

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание наформы причастий.

1. Already frustrated by a delayed flight a passenger stormed onto the runway, took out a pistol and shot out the aircraft’s front tyre.

2. In one recent case, a septuagenarian hit a steward after being told there was no more steak.

3. More carriers nowadays are banning on-board smoking, leading the nicotine dependent into conflict as they try to have a secret cigarette.

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание насослагательное наклонение.

1. They even threatened to dismiss him if he did not accept their new dress code.

2. Even if you know how a market will develop, timing is a matter of luck or

of quite exceptional skill.

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

Private Enterprise

In capitalist economies, a predominant proportion of productive capacity has belonged to companies, in the sense of for-profit organizations. This include many forms of organizations that existed in earlier economic systems, such as sole proprietorships and partnerships. Non-profit organizations existing in capitalism include cooperatives, credit unions and communes.

More unique to capitalism is the form of organization called corporation, which can be both for-profit and non-profit. This entity can act as a virtual person in many matters before the law. This gives some unique advantages to the owners, such as limited liability of the owners and perpetual lifetime beyond that of current owners.

A special form of corporation is a corporation owned by shareholders who can sell their shares in a market. One can view shares as converting company ownership into a commodity - the ownership rights are divided into units (the shares) for ease of trading in them. Such share trading first took place widely in Europe during the 17th century and continued to develop and spread thereafter. When company ownership is spread among many shareholders, the shareholders generally have votes in the exercise of authority over the company in proportion to the size of their share of ownership.

To a large degree, authority over productive capacity in capitalism has resided with the owners of companies. Within legal limits and the financial means available to them, the owners of each company can decide how it will operate. In larger companies, authority is usually delegated in a hierarchical or bureaucratic system of management.

Importantly, the owners receive some of the profits or proceeds generated by the company, sometimes in the form of dividends, sometimes from selling their ownership at higher price than their initial cost. They may also re-invest the profit in the company which may increase future profits and value of the company. They may also liquidate the company, selling all of the equipment, land, and other assets, and split the proceeds between them.

The price at which ownership of productive capacity sells is generally the maximum of either the net present value of the expected future stream of profits or the value of the assets, net of any obligations. There is therefore a financial incentive for owners to exercise their authority in ways that increase the productive capacity of what they own. Various owners are motivated to various degrees by this incentive – some give away a proportion of what they own, others seem very driven to increase their holdings. Nevertheless the incentive is always there, and it is credited by many as being a key aspect behind the remarkably consistent growth exhibited by capitalist economies. Meanwhile, some critics of capitalism claim that the incentive for the owners is exaggerated and that it results in the owners receiving money that rightfully belongs to the workers, while others point to the fact that the incentive only motivates owners to make a profit - something which may not necessarily result in a positive impact on society. Others note that in order to get a profit in a non-violent way, one must satisfy some need among other persons that they are willing to pay for. Also, most people in practice prefer to work for and buy products from for-profit organizations rather than to buy from or work for non-profit and communal production organizations which are legal in capitalist economies and which anyone can start or join.

VI. Ответьте на вопросы после текста.

1.What is the predominant type of organizations in capitalist economies?

2.What advantages does corporation have?

3.How can shareholders exercise their authority over a company?

Вариант

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Denin, the raw material which is used to make the jeans, will be imported from several countries.

2. The first free elections for a democratic government have been held this year.

3. The contracts with the four largest kiwifruit cooperatives have already been signed and planting has begun.

II. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения.

1. Everyone in your audience should be at the same language level?

2. Could you please tell us what your job involves?

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание наформы причастий.

1. Outdoor advertising is one of the fastest growing segments, having doubled its market share in recent years.

2. This is a high-priced, hand-finished model with a classic design.

3. When working, Mr. Humphries, an ex-ROYAL Airforce man, wore dark blue trouser, a light blue short, and a red and grey striped tie.

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание насослагательное наклонение.

1. If you memorise the introduction, you will be more confident when making a presentation.

2. If you use an overhead projector, you should remember to turn it off when you don’t need it.

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

Types of taxes

Taxes are sometimes referred to as direct or indirect. The meaning of these terms can vary in different contexts, which can sometimes lead to confusion. In economics, direct taxes refer to those taxes that are collected from the people or organizations on whom they are imposed. For example, income taxes are collected from the person who earns the income. By contrast, indirect taxes are collected from someone other than the person responsible for paying the taxes.

From whom a tax is collected is a matter of law. However, who pays the tax is determined by the market place and is found by comparing the price of the good (including tax) after the tax is imposed to the price of the good before the tax was imposed. For example, suppose the price of gas in the U.S., without taxes, were $2.00 per gallon. Suppose the U.S. government imposes a tax of $0.50 per gallon on the gas. Forces of demand and supply will determine how that $0.50 tax burden is distributed among the buyers and sellers. For example, it is possible that the price of gas, after the tax, might be $2.40. In such a case, buyers would be paying $0.40 of the tax while the sellers would be paying $0.10 of the tax.

Income tax

Income tax is commonly a progressive tax because the tax rate increases with increasing income. For this reason, it is generally advocated by those who think that taxation should be borne more by the rich than by the poor, even to the point of serving as a form of social redistribution. Some critics characterize this tax as a form of punishment for economic productivity. Other critics charge that income taxation is inherently socially intrusive because enforcement requires the government to collect large amounts of information about business and personal affairs, much of which is considered proprietary and confidential.

Income tax fraud is a problem in most, if not all, countries implementing an income tax. Either one fails to declare income, or declares nonexistent expenses. Failure to declare income is especially easy for non-salaried work, especially those paid in cash. Tax enforcement authorities fight tax fraud using various methods, nowadays with the help of computer databases. They may, for instance, look for discrepancies between declared revenue and expenses along time. Tax enforcement authorities then target individuals for a tax audit – a more or less detailed review of the income and tax-deductible expenses of the individual.

Income tax may be collected from legal entities (e.g., companies) as well as natural persons (individuals), although, in some cases, the income tax on legal entities is levied on a slightly different basis than the income tax on individuals and may be called, in the case of income tax on companies, a corporation tax or a corporate income tax.

Poll tax

A poll tax, also called a per capita tax, or capitation tax, is a tax that levies a set amount per individual. The earliest tax mentioned in the Bible of a half-shekel per annum from each adult Jew was a form of poll tax. Poll taxes are regressive, since they take the same amount of money (and hence, a higher proportion of income) for poorer individuals as for richer individuals. Poll taxes are difficult to cheat.

VI. Ответьте на вопросы после текста.

Вариант

I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Several foreign firms have been invited to present their new products to the board of the store.

2. Orders have also been cancelled as company’s subsidiaries are not responding quickly to customers’ needs.

3. Its latest collection was described by a famous fashion expert as boring, behind the times and with no appeal to a fashion-conscious buyer.

II. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения.

1. All travelers to the US have to be in possession of a visa.

2. You can’t visit the museum on Mondays as it is closed.

III. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание наформы причастий.

1. Following complaints from customers, we need to discuss a dress code for all employees, and guidelines on personal appearance.

2. When preparing a presentation, try to find out what your audience already knows.

IV. Перепишите предложения. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание насослагательное наклонение.

1. If you have any questions, don’t hesitate to ask.

2. If you look at the graph, you’ll see the bar’s actual sales compared with forecast sales.

V. Перепишите и письменно переведите текст.

Market Economy

The notion of a "free market" where all economic decisions regarding transfers of money, goods, and services take place on a voluntary basis, free of coercive influence, is commonly considered to be an essential characteristic of capitalism. Some individuals contend, that in systems where individuals are prevented from owning the means of production (including the profits), or coerced to share them, not all economic decisions are free of coercive influence, and, hence, are not free markets. In an ideal free market system none of these economic decisions involve coercion. Instead, they are determined in a decentralized manner by individuals trading, bargaining, cooperating, and competing with each other. In a free market, government may act in a defensive mode to forbid coercion among market participants but does not engage in proactive interventionist coercion. Nevertheless, some authorities claim that capitalism is perfectly compatible with interventionist authoritarian governments, and/or that a free market can exist without capitalism.

A legal system that grants and protects property rights provides property owners the entitlement to sell their property in accordance with their own valuation of that property; if there are no willing buyers at their offered price they have the freedom to retain it. According to standard capitalist theory, as explained by Adam Smith, when individuals make a trade they value what they are purchasing more than they value what they are giving in exchange for a commodity. If this were not the case, then they would not make the trade but retain ownership of the more valuable commodity. This notion underlies the concept of mutually-beneficial trade where it is held that both sides tend to benefit by an exchange.

In regard to pricing of goods and services in a free market, rather than this being ordained by government it is determined by trades that occur as a result of price agreement between buyers and sellers. The prices buyers are willing to pay for a commodity and the prices at which sellers are willing to part with that commodity are directly influenced by supply and demand (as well as the quantity to be traded). In abstract terms, the price is thus defined as the equilibrium point of the demand and the supply curves, which represent the prices at which buyers would buy (and sellers sell) certain quantities of the good in question. A price above the equilibrium point will lead to oversupply (the buyers will buy less goods at that price than the sellers are willing to produce), while a price below the equilibrium will lead to the opposite situation. When the price a buyer is willing to pay coincides with the price a seller is willing to offer, a trade occurs and price is determined.

VI. Ответьте на вопросы после текста.

1. How should government act in an ideal free market?

2. How do you understand the concept of mutually-beneficial trade?

3. How is the price determined?