List of Abbreviations

ИСТОРИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

Учебник

Второе издание, стереотипное

Москва

Астрель ACT

История английского языка: Учебник/Т.А. Расторгуева. — 2-е изд., стер. — М.: ООО «Издательство Астрель»: ООО "Издательство АСТ", 2003. — 348, [4] с. — На англ. яз.

Учебник охватывает всю программу курса истории английского языка. Каждый раздел снабжен вопросами и упражнениями, контролирующими понимание и стимулирующими самостоятельный анализ фактов языка. Приложена хрестоматия текстов разных эпох с образцами анализа, словарями и переводом.

Предназначен для студентов институтов и факультетов иностранных языков.

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

INTRODUCTION (§ 1-10) 7

Part One. 11

Chapter I SOME THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE HISTORY
(§ 11-31) 11

Chapter II GERMANIC LANGUAGES (§ 32-49) 21

Chapter III LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES
(§ 50-72) 30

Chapter IV CHRONOLOGICAL DIVISIONS IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH. SHORT SURVEY OF PERIODS (§ 73-78) 46

Chapter V OLD ENGLISH. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (§ 79-101) 52

Chapter VI OLD ENGLISH WRITTEN RECORDS (§ 102-110) 61

Chapter VII OLD ENGLISH ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION
(§ 111-113) 68

Chapter VIII OLD ENGLISH PHONETICS (§ 114-147) 72

Chapter IX OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR (§ 148-226) 88

Chapter X OLD ENGLISH VOCABULARY (§ 227-278) 124

Part Two. 142

Chapter XI HISTORICAL BACKGROUND FROM THE 11TH TO 15TH C. LINGUISTIC SITUATION. WRITTEN RECORDS (§ 279-308) 142

Chapter XII DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATIONAL LITERARY ENGLISH LANGUAGE (16TH-19TH C.) (§ 309-354) 157

Chapter XIII SPELLING CHANGES IN MIDDLE ENGLISH. RULES OF READING (§ 355-361) 176

Chapter XIV EVOLUTION OF THE SOUND SYSTEM FROM THE 11TH TO 18TH C. (§ 362-417) 182

Chapter XV EVOLUTION OF THE GRAMMATICAL SYSTEM FROM THE 11TH TO 18TH C. (§ 418-555) 213

Chapter XVI DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY FROM THE 12TH TO 19TH C. (§ 556-626) 285

APPENDIX.. 317

Suggestions for Further Reading. 335

List of Abbreviations

Асc. = Accusative

A. D. = Anno Domini (‘of our era’)

adj = adjective

adv = adverb

Am E = American English

anom. = anomalous

arch. = archaic

art. = article

Br E = British English

c. = century: circa; case

Celt = Celtic

cf. = confer

Comm. = Common

comp. = comparative

conj. = conjunction

Dat. = Dative

decl. = declension

def. = definite

dem. = demonstrative

dial. = dialectal

E = English

e. g. = exempli gratia = for instance

F, Fem. = Feminine

ff. = following (paragraphs)

Fr = French

G = German

Gen. = Genitive

Gt = Gothic

I. e. = id est = that is

IE = Indo-European

Ind. (Mood) = Indicative (Mood)

Indef. = indefinite

inf. = infinitive

Instr. = Instrumental

Ir = Irish

It = Italian

L = Latin

Lith = Lithuanium

lit. = literal(ly)

M. Masc. = Masculine

ME = Middle English

mod. = modern

Mod E = Modern English

n = noun

N, Neut. = Neuter

NE = New English

neg. = negative

NG = North Germanic

Nom. = Nominative

num. = numeral

О = Object

Obj = Objective

obs. = obsolete

OE = Old English

O Fr = Old French

OG = Old Germanic

OHG = Old High German

О Icel = Old Icelandic

О Ind = Old Indian

orig. mean. = original meaning

OS = Old Saxon

О Scand = Old Scandinavian

O Sw = Old Swedish

p. = person

P. = Predicate

Part. = Participle

Pass. = Passive

Pert. = Perfect

pers. = personal

PG = Proto-Germanic

PIE= Proto-Indo-European

pl = plural

Poss. = Possessive

prep. = preposition

Pres. = Present

pret.-pres. = preterite-present

pron. = pronoun

prop. = proper

R = Russian

rel. (to) = related (to)

S = Subject

Sanskr = Sanskrit

sg = singular

Sp = Spanish str. = strong

Subj. (Mood) = Subjunctive (Mood)

superl. = superlative.

Sw = Swedish

v = verb

w = weak

WG = West Germanic

WS = West Saxon

Preface

This book on the history of the English language is intended for students of English at universities, pedagogical institutes and institutes of foreign languages.

The book consists of two parts. Part I contains a discussion of some theoreti­cal aspects of language evolution, a short description of the Germanic languages, a preliminary brief survey of the history of English, and a detailed description of the lan­guage in the Old English period. Only a sound knowledge of Old English can ensure an understanding of the subsequent development of the language. Part II outlines the development of the English language from the 12th to the 19th c. The description is not based on periods; every part of the language — the sounds, spelling, grammar, vocabulary, as well as the relevant historical conditions — is described separately, through all the periods so as to show their uninterrupted evolution and gradual transition from Old English to Modern English.

The book differs from previous works on the subject in the arrangement and order of presentation of the material, and in the treatment of some historical pro­cesses. It is based on the results of recent research in theoretical linguistics and in the history of English.

The book includes supplementary pedagogical material: sets of questions and assignments on the chapters which will enable the student to test his knowledge as he advances and will ensure a more profound understanding of the subjects dis­cussed. A knowledge of the path which the language has followed will enable the student to account for the features of Modern English from a historical point of view, this being essential both for the student and for the would-be teacher of English.

Appended to the book is a graduated reader. It contains specimens of English from different centuries. The Old English texts are supplied with models of analysis, a commentary, partial translation, a glossary and special assignments calling atten­tion to the most important peculiarities of the language. The plan followed in arran­ging the material is to carry the student's mind gradually forward from easier tasks to more difficult ones. The less difficult texts from later periods are presented according to the same plan and are supplied with the minimum of information required for read­ing and analysis. For fuller information, especially on the etymology of words, the student can turn to the CONCISE OXFORD DICTIONARY or other dictionaries which provide etymological data. The study of the texts in the Appendix will prepare the student for more extensive reading of English written records pub­lished in other readers: such as SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH FROM THE 7TH TO THE 17TH CENTURY compiled by A.I. Smirnitsky, A READER IN EARLY ENGLISH by I. P. Ivflnova, T.M. Belyaeva and THE OLD ENGLISH LANGUAGE complied by L.S. Alexeieva.

The material in the book is subdivided into short paragraphs, so that the dis­criminating teacher can select items appropriate to the level of particular groups of students.

In conclusion I should like to thank Professor V.Y. Plotkin and Assistant professors L.S. Kuznetscva and M.V. Khvesina who reviewed the text of the book and made many valuable suggestions.

T. A. Rastorguyeva

INTRODUCTION

Subject and Aims of the History of English (§ 1-7)

§ 1. This outline history covers the main events in the historical development of the English language: the history of its phonetic struc­ture and spelling, the evolution of its grammatical system, the growth of its vocabulary, and also the changing historical conditions of English-speaking communities relevant to language history.

A language can be considered from different angles. In studying Modern English (Mod E) we regard the language as fixed in time and describe each linguistic level — phonetics, grammar or lexis — synchronically, taking no account of the origin of present-day features or their tendencies to change. The synchronic approach can be contrasted to the diachronic. When considered diachronically; every linguistic fact is interpreted as a stage or step in the never-ending evolution of language. In practice, however, the contrast between diachronic and synchronic study is not so marked as in theory: we commonly resort to history to explain current phenomena in Mod E. Likewise in describing the evolution of language we can present it as a series of synchronic cross-sections, e.g. the English language of the age of Shakespeare (16th-17th c.) or the age of Chaucer (14th c).

§ 2. Through learning the history of the English language the stu­dent achieves a variety of aims, both theoretical and practical.

The history of the language is of considerable interest to all students of English, since the English language of today reflects many centuries of development. As F. Engels wrote: "Substance and form of one's own language, however, become intelligible only when its origin and gradual evolution are traced, and this cannot be done without taking into account, first, its own extinct forms, and secondly, cognate languages, both liv­ing and dead" (Anti-Duhring. M., 1959, p. 441).

This is no less true of a foreign language. Therefore one of the aims of this course is to provide the student with a knowledge of linguistic history sufficient to account for the principal features of present-day English. A few illustrations given below show how modern linguistic features can be explained by resorting to history.

§ 3. Any student of English is well aware of the difficulties of read­ing and spelling English. The written form of the English word is con­ventional rather than phonetic. The values of Latin letters as used in English differ greatly from their respective values in other languages, e.g. French, German or Latin. Cf.:

The history of English sounds and spelling accounts for these and similar peculiarities. Without going into details it will suffice to say that at the time when Latin characters were first used in Britain (7th c.) writing was phonetic: the letters stood, roughly, for the same sounds as in Latin. Later, especially after the introduction of printing in the 15th c., the written form of the word became fixed, while the sounds continued to change. This resulted in a growing discrepancy between letter and sound and in the modern peculiar use of Latin letters in English. Many modern spellings show how the words were pronounced some four or five hundred years ago, e.g. in the 14th c. knight sounded as [knix't], root as [ro:t], tale as ['ta:ls].

§ 4. Another illustration may be drawn from the vocabulary. Since English belongs to the Germanic group of languages, it would be natural to expect that it has many words or roots in common with cognate Ger­manic languages: German, Swedish, Danish and others. Instead, we find many more words in Mod E having exact parallels in the Romance languages: French, Latin, Spanish. Cf.:

The first word — give — is of native, Germanic origin, which is confirmed by the parallels from other Germanic tongues; the other words — peace and army — are borrowings from Romance languages (note that in OE the respective words were Germanic.) In present-day English the proportion of Romance roots is higher than that of native roots. The history of English will say when and how these borrow­ings were made and will thus account for the composition of the modern vocabulary.

§ 5. As far as grammar is concerned, it can only be noted at this stage that the history of the language will supply explanations both for the general, regular features of the grammatical structure and for its specific peculiarities and exceptions. It will explain why English has so few inflections; how its "analytical" structure arose — with an abundance of compound forms and a fixed word order; why modal verbs, unlike other verbs, take no ending -s in the 3rd p.sg.; why some nouns add -en or change the root-vowel in the plural instead of adding -s (e.g. oxen, feet)and so on and so forth.

§ 6. Another important aim of this course is of a more theoretical nature. While tracing the evolution of the English language through time, the student will be confronted with a number of theoretical ques­tions such as the relationship between statics and dynamics in language, the role of linguistic and extralinguistic factors, the interdependence of different processes in language history. These problems may be con­sidered on a theoretical plane within the scope of general linguistics. In describing the evolution of English, they will be discussed in respect of concrete linguistic facts, which will ensure a better understanding of these facts and will demonstrate the application of general principles to language material.

§ 7. One more aim of this course is to provide the student of English with a wider philological outlook. The history of the English language shows the place of English in the linguistic world; it reveals its ties and contacts with other related and unrelated tongues.

Sources of Language History (§ 8-10)

§ 8. Every living language changes through time. It is natural that no records of linguistic changes have ever been kept, as most changes pass unnoticed by contemporaries.

The history of the English language has been reconstructed on the basis of written records of different periods. The earliest extant written texts in English are dated in the 7th c; the earliest records in other Germanic languages go back to the 3rd or 4th c. A. D.

The development of English, however, began a long time before it was first recorded. In order to say where the English language came from, to what languages it is related, when and how it has acquired its specific features, one must get acquainted with some facts of the pre­written history of the Germanic group.

Certain information about the early stages of English and Germanic history is to be found in the works of ancient historians and geographers, especially Roman. They contain descriptions of Germanic tribes, per­sonal names and place-names. Some data are also provided by early borrowings from Germanic made by other languages, e.g. the Finnish and the Baltic languages. But the bulk of our knowledge comes from scientific study of extant texts.

§ 9. The pre-written history of English and cognate languages was first stud­ied by methods of comparative linguistics evolved in the 19th c. By applying these methods linguists discovered the kinship of what is now known as the Indo-European (IE) family of languages and grouped them into Germanic, Slavonic, Ro­mance, Celtic, and others. It is one of the intentions of this course to show how comparison of existing and reconstructed forms can demonstrate differences and similarities in languages, and how reconstructed forms help to understand later developments.

§ 10. Modern linguistics has improved on the methods of comparative linguistic research applied in the 19th c. In addition to external reconstruction which was based on comparing different languages, the recently formulated method of internal reconstruction studies history from internal sources alone. This method is based on the assumption that every language is a well organised and well balanced structure of elements. Hence, if among the productive systems of the language there occur some smaller, non-productive systems one can surmise that they are relics of preceding stages of development. When traced into the past, these systems often appear more numerous and more productive, e.g. modern plural forms like oxen, teeth, isolated now, were, found in larger groups of nouns at an earlier period.. It follows that the past history of a language can also be reconstructed by considering its dialectal varieties, since the dialects often preserve forms, words or pronunciations which have become obsolete in the literary standard.

Part One