Group I

1. You are going to read the text about Nuclear fission. Seven phrases have been removed from the text. Choose from the sentence a-h the one which fits each gap (1 – 7). There is one extra phrase which you don’t need to use.

a. and therefore are the most stable

b. because this allows one product to be closer to the energetic minimum near mass 60 u (only a quarter of the average fissionable mass)

c. once a fuel element has been used

d. so nuclear fuel contains at least ten million times more usable energy than does chemical fuel

e. since it follows a Yukawa potential

f. as excess neutrons convert to protons inside the nucleus of the fission product atoms

g. nuclear fission of heavy elements produces energy

h. with atomic masses near 100 (fission products)

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission differs from other forms of radioactive decay in that it can be harnessed and controlled via a chain reaction: free neutrons released by each fission event can trigger yet more events, which in turn release more neutrons and cause more fissions. Chemical isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction are called nuclear fuels, and are said to be fissile. The most common nuclear fuels are ²³⁵U (the isotope of uranium with an atomic mass of 235 and of use in nuclear reactors) and ²³⁹Pu (the isotope of plutonium with an atomic mass of 239). These fuels break apart into a range of chemical elements 1)_______. Most nuclear fuels undergo spontaneous fission only very slowly, decaying mainly via an alpha/beta decay chain over periods of millennia to eons. In a nuclear reactor or nuclear weapon, most fission events are induced by bombardment with another particle such as a neutron.

Typical fission events release about two hundred million eV of energy for each fission event. By contrast, most chemical oxidation reactions (such as burning coal or TNT) release at most a few eV per event, 2)__________. The energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products and fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays; in a nuclear reactor, the energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water or occasionally heavy water.

3)______________ because the specific binding energy (binding energy per mass) of intermediate-mass nuclei with atomic numbers and atomic masses close to ⁶¹Ni and ⁵⁶Fe is greater than the specific binding energy of very heavy nuclei, so that energy is released when heavy nuclei are broken apart.

The total rest masses of the fission products (Mp) from a single reaction are less than the mass of the original fuel nucleus (M). The excess mass Δm = M - Mp is the invariant mass of the energy that is released as photons (gamma rays) and kinetic energy of the fission fragments, according to the mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc ².

In nuclear fission events the nuclei may break into any combination of lighter nuclei, but the most common event is not fission to equal mass nuclei of about mass 120; the most common event (depending on isotope and process) is a slightly unequal fission in which one daughter nucleus has a mass of about 90 to 100 u and the other the remaining 130 to 140 u. Unequal fissions are energetically more favorable 4)___________, while the other nucleus with mass 135 u is still not far out of the range of the most tightly bound nuclei (another statement of this, is that the atomic binding energy curve is slightly steeper to the left of mass 120 u than to the right of it).

The variation in specific binding energy with atomic number is due to the interplay of the two fundamental forces acting on the component nucleons (protons and neutrons) that make up the nucleus. Nuclei are bound by an attractive strong nuclear force between nucleons, which overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between protons. However, the strong nuclear force acts only over extremely short ranges, 5)_________. For this reason large nuclei are less tightly bound per unit mass than small nuclei, and breaking a very large nucleus into two or more intermediate-sized nuclei releases energy.

Because of the short range of the strong binding force, large nuclei must contain proportionally more neutrons than do light elements, which are most stable with a 1-1 ratio of protons and neutrons. Extra neutrons stabilize heavy elements because they add to strong-force binding without adding to proton-proton repulsion. Fission products have, on average, about the same ratio of neutrons and protons as their parent nucleus, and are therefore usually unstable because they have proportionally too many neutrons compared to stable isotopes of similar mass. This is the fundamental cause of the problem of radioactive high level waste from nuclear reactors. Fission products tend to be beta emitters, emitting fast-moving electrons to conserve electric charge 6)_____________.

The most common nuclear fuels, ²³⁵U and ²³⁹Pu, are not major radiologic hazards by themselves: ²³⁵U has a half-life of approximately 700 million years, and although ²³⁹Pu has a half-life of only about 24,000 years, it is a pure alpha particle emitter and hence not particularly dangerous unless ingested. 7)_______, the remaining fuel material is intimately mixed with highly radioactive fission products that emit energetic beta particles and gamma rays. Some fission products have half-lives as short as seconds; others have half-lives of tens of thousands of years, requiring long-term storage in facilities such as Yucca Mountain until the fission products decay into non-radioactive stable isotopes.

2. Match the notions and their meanings:

1. chain reaction a) the compound D₂O composed of deuterium and oxygen —called also deuterium oxide

2. isotope b) something that is built, installed, or established to serve a particular purpose

3. gamma ray c) a source of danger

4. heavy water d) a series of events so related to each other that each one initiates the next

5. hazard e) a photon emitted spontaneously by a radioactive substance

6. half-life f) the time required for half of the atoms of a radioactive substance to become disintegrated

7. facilities g) any of two or more species of atoms of a chemical element with the same atomic number and nearly identical chemical behavior but with differing atomic mass or mass number and different physical properties

3. Find words in the text above which mean the following:

Verbs

1. to clash

2. to initiate

3. to generate/ cause/ prompt

4. to control/ command/ restrict

5. to change/ alter/ modify

6. to compose/ compile

7. to release/expel/ eject

8. to take in/ consume/ eat or drink

4. Make a list of collocations with the words below and use them in sentences of your own: