Role-play. A group of Belarusian teachers discusses the educational tradition in their country with their British colleagues

A group of Belarusian teachers discusses the educational tradition in their country with their British colleagues. The discussion includes comparison of
the underlying ideas of their two systems, as well as the latest reforms.

TEXT 2. SCHOOL EDUCATION IN THE USA

Education in the usa. purpose and scope

Americans believe that every citizen has both the right and the obligation to become educated.

In order to develop an educated population, all states have compulsory school attendance laws. These laws vary somewhat from one state to another, but generally they require that formal schooling begin by age 6 and continue until at least age l6. However, most Americans attend school at least until high school graduation, when they are l7 or l8 years old. About 75% of all American adults and about 85% of younger American adults are high school graduates.

The size of the nation’s basic educational enterprise is astonishing. From kindergarten through high school, about 46 million students are enrolled in school. To educate this vast number of students, Americans employ about
2.7 million teachers, by far the largest professional group in the country.

Public and private schools

About 88% of American children receive their elementary and high school education in the nation’s public schools. These schools have
the following important characteristics in common.

They are supported by taxes and, therefore, do not charge tuition.

In general, they are neighbourhood schools, open to all students who live within the district.

They are co-educational, which means that boys and girls attend the same schools and have nearly all of their classes together.. By providing girls with equal educational opportunity, American public schools have helped to create today’s self-sufficient American woman.

Public schools are required to follow some state guidelines regarding, for example, curriculum and teacher qualifications. But, in most matters, schools are locally controlled. Each school district is run by an elected Board of Education and the school administrators that Board hires. This system creates strong ties between the district’s schools and its community.

Public schools are non-sectarian (secular), which means that they are free from the influence of any religion. As a result, children of many different religions feel comfortable attending the public schools, and the public school system has been able to help a diverse population build a common culture.

Private schools can be divided into two categories: parochial (supported by a particular religious group) and secular (non-religious). Private schools charge tuition and are not under direct public control, although many states set educational standards for them. In order to attend a private school, a student must apply and be accepted. Parochial schools make up the largest group of private schools, and most of these are operated by the Roman Catholic Church. Private secular schools are mainly high schools and colleges.

Course content and teaching methods

In educating students for adult work and adult life, American schools try, above all, to be practical. American education has been greatly influenced by the writings of a famous 20th-century philosopher named John Dewey. Dewey believed that the only worthwhile knowledge was knowledge that could be used. He convinced educators that it was pointless to make students memorize useless facts that they would quickly forget. Rather, schools should teach thinking processes and skills that affect how people live and work.

Dewey also influenced teaching techniques. Education must be meaningful, and children learn best by doing – these are the basic ideas of progressive education. Thus, science is taught largely through student experimentation; the study of music involves making music; democratic principles are put into practice in the student council; group projects encourage creativity, individual initiative, leadership, and teamwork.

What do American schools see as their educational responsibility to students? The scope is very broad indeed. Today’s schools teach skills and information once left for the parents to teach at home. For example, it is common for the public school curriculum to include a campaign against cigarette smoking and drug abuse, a course in driver’s education, cooking and sewing classes, consumer education, and sex education. Most American grammar schools have also added computer skills to their curriculum. As human knowledge has expanded and life has become increasingly complex, the schools have had to go far beyond the original three Rs (“reading, writing, and arithmetic”) that they were created to teach.

American high schools have a dual commitment: (a) to offer a general college preparatory program for those who are interested in higher education; and (b) to provide opportunities for vocational training for students who plan to enter the work force immediately after high school graduation. For the college-bound, high schools offer advanced classes in math, sciences, social sciences, English, and foreign languages. They also have Advanced Placement (AP) courses, which enable good students to earn college credit while still in high school. But in the same building other students take vocational courses such as shorthand and mechanical drawing, and some participate in work/study programs which enable them to get high school credit for on-the-job training in various occupations.

Today, more than ever before, American schools are committed to helping foreign-born students adjust to life in an American class-room.
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 provided federal funds for bilingual instruction, which allows students to study academic subjects totally or partially in their native language while they are learning English. Bilingual education is offered in about 70 languages including Chinese, Spanish, Vietnamese, and several American Indian languages. Of course, this type of instruction is available only where a number of students speak the same foreign language. In addition, immigrant students have benefited from the 1974 Supreme Court ruling requiring public schools to provide special programs for students who speak little or no English. Today, English as a second language of instruction is common in American elementary and high schools.

Early childhood education

By the age of five, about 87% of American children are attending school, most of them in pre–academic classes called kindergarten.

However, many American youngsters are introduced to their first school setting even before the age of five, through nursery school or day care attendance. In fact, about 29% of three-year-olds and 49% of four-year-olds are enrolled in one or the other.

Nursery schools accept children from three to five years of age for half-day sessions ranging from twice a week to five days a week. The typical nursery school is equipped with toys, building blocks, books, puzzles, art supplies, and an outdoor play-ground. These pre-school programs usually charge tuition, although some are subsidized, and some offer scholarships. Day care programs have similar facilities that offer all-day care for the children of working parents.

Elementary school and high school

In most areas, free public education begins with kindergarten classes for five-year-olds. These are usually half-day classes two or three hours long, although some communities run all-day kindergarten programs. The primary purpose of kindergarten is socialization, but the young students also gain information and skills. For example, they learn to identify colors, count to ten, print their names, work with art supplies, listen to stories, and enjoy books. After kindergarten, American children begin their academic studies. Their schooling is divided into 12 academic levels called grades. One school year (from late August or early September to mid-June) is required to complete each grade. Academic work – learning to read, write, and do arithmetic – begins when children enter lst grade, at about age 6.

The first academic institution that a student attends is called elementary school or grammar school. In some school systems, elementary school includes kindergarten through 8th grade, and the next four years (taught in a different school building) are called high school. In other school systems, there is a third division called junior high school (or middle school) which usually includes grades 6 through 8, but in some communities includes grades 4 or 5 through 8 and in others includes grades 7 through 9.

The typical school day is about seven hours long and ends about 3 P.M. Classes are in session Monday through Friday. Traditional vacation periods include a two-week winter vacation (including the Christmas and New Year’s holidays),a one -week spring vacation (often coinciding with Easter), and a two-month summer vacation. In addition, there are several one-day holidays giving students a day off to celebrate.

Children going to public elementary schools usually attend a school in their neighbourhood. In big cities, many children live close enough to walk to and from school and come home for lunch. However, most elementary schools provide a place where students can eat if it is inconvenient for them to go home at lunchtime. American high schools are larger than elementary schools and serve a larger community. As a result, most high school students take public transportation or a school bus to and from school and eat lunch in the school cafeteria.

Grammar schools teach language arts (reading, writing, spelling, and penmanship), social studies (stressing history and geography), mathematics (up to and sometimes including algebra), science, physical education, and health. In addition, elementary school programs often include music, art, and home economics.

High school subjects are more specialized. English classes emphasize writing, grammar, and literature. Social studies is split into separate courses such as American history, European history, and psychology. Year-long courses in algebra and geometry are followed by more advanced math work in trigonometry and pre-calculus. There are also specialized science courses in biology, chemistry, and physics. Many high school students study a foreign language, usually Spanish, French, or German. Courses in music, art, home economics, and consumer education are also available, along with various vocational courses. As in elementary school, health and physical education classes are generally required.

During the elementary school years, students are grouped into classes, and each group stays together for the entire school day and the entire school year. Generally, the class has the same teacher for most subjects, although art, music, and physical education are usually taught by teachers who specialize in these areas. Also, in the upper elementary grades, students in some school systems have different teachers (but the same classmates) for their major academic subjects.

In high school, students move from one classroom to another and study each subject with a different teacher and a different group of classmates. Many high schools have what is commonly called a tracking system, which groups students according to academic ability and motivation. Thus, more capable and hard-working students take more difficult courses. Depending on the subject, classes may be offered at two, three, or even four different ability levels.

High school students have a very busy day. Many take five or six academic subjects as well as physical education. During other periods, students may be doing homework in a study hall, researching in the school library, or participating in activities such as the school orchestra, student government, school newspaper, or math club. Many extracurricular activities also meet after the school day ends. Students involved in time-consuming activities such as athletics, dramatics, or music may be at school from very early in the morning until dinnertime. However, these school activities are well worth the time because they help students find friends with similar interests, develop their talents, gain greater self-confidence, and sometimes even discover their career goals.

Problems and solutions

When an immigrant family moves to the USA, one of the first questions that parents ask is, “Will my children get a good education here?” The answer depends on two major factors: where the children attend school and how hard they are willing to work.

In some schools where the community is stable, the funding good, and
the school environment orderly, a hardworking student can get an excellent education. But in other schools – especially those in poor neighborhoods in
the nation’s large cities – it is very difficult to become educated. The flight of middle-class families to the suburbs left big city public schools with mostly lower-income students. Many are deprived children from impoverished homes with only one parent. Many come to school ill-prepared and poorly motivated to learn. A large number need help in learning English. Many change residences and schools often, and a changing classroom population is difficult to teach. In some poor neighborhoods, the students do not attend school regularly because they are frightened by violent gangs. In some class-rooms, teachers have difficulty keeping the students’ attention because disrespectful, uncooperative students disturb the class. Because the quality of education varies so much from one school district to another, parents who are planning to move to a new neighborhood often inquire about the schools – and even visit them – before deciding which community to move to.

Researchers are always studying the schools and evaluating the kind of education being provided. Experts ask: “Are today’s students learning as much as their older siblings or their parents did? Are they learning as much as students in other countries?” In the 1980s, many studies revealed weaknesses in the American educational system. For example, of the l58 members of
the United Nations, the USA ranked 49th in its level of literacy. It has been claimed that as many as 25 million American adults cannot read the front page of a newspaper. Another study focused on students’ knowledge of history and literature. The results were published in a book entitled “What Do Our l7-Year-Olds Know?”.

And the answer is, “not much”. For example 75% of American high school seniors did not know when Abraham Lincoln was President, and 89% could not identify Dickens, Dostoyevsky, and Ibsen as famous authors. In
a 1988 study comparing students’ knowledge of geography, American young adults came in last of nine countries. In fact, l8% of the American students couldn’t even find the USA on a world map! Still other studies indicate that today’s students are weak in mathematical problem-solving and writing skills.

What’s wrong with American education? To find the answer and to fix the problem, one must look at all of the elements: the students themselves, their parents, their teachers, the school curriculum, the textbooks, and
the community. Many students simply do not study enough. Two-thirds of high school seniors do an hour or less of homework per night. American teenagers are often distracted by part-time jobs, sports and other school activities, TV, and socializing. Some do not keep up with their schoolwork because of emotional problems, use of illegal drugs, or simply lack of motivation. Clearly, if Americans are to become better educated, students must spend more time studying, and parents must insist that they do so.

Criticism of American education stimulated a reform movement. As
a result, 45 of the 50 states raised high-school graduation requirements. One government study recommended a longer school year. (Now, the average American student attends school about 180 days a year, compared to 210 for
a Japanese student.) Efforts have also been underway to increase parental involvement in schools and to improve teaching. College programs that educate teachers are trying to encourage more academically talented students to choose teaching as a career. Schools of education are also improving their curriculum so that American teachers of the future will be better prepared. School administrators are working on curriculum revisions. Publishers are being urged to create text-books that are more challenging, interesting, and objective. Finally, concerned citizens are urging communities and the federal government to provide more tax dollars for education.

What can one say about basic education in the USA today? It has many strengths, but there’s plenty of room for improvement. Since the school reform movement began, test scores have risen somewhat, and Americans are optimistic that reform and improvement will continue. Americans deeply believe in education as the best vehicle for individual and social advancement. Improving the basic school system is one of the nation’s top priorities. But meanwhile, it is a consolation to remember that, for most young Americans, formal education does not end with high school graduation.

Reading Comprehension Check

1. What have you gathered about the underlying ideas of American school education (in course content and teaching methods)?

2. What are the major academic divisions of the American school system?

3. What are the main tasks of early childhood education in the USA?

4. How does instruction in high schools differ from that in elementary schools?

5. What kinds of private schools exist in the USA?

6. What problems do American schools face?

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Go through the list of educational terms. Be able to explain the notions they describe.

nursery school

day-care attendance

all-day care

kindergarten classes

pre-academic classes

the three Rs

public school

elementary school, syn. grammar school

middle school syn. junior high school

high school

to graduate from

curriculum

non-sectarian, syn. secular

parochial

grade n, v

bilingual instruction

college-bound a

Advanced Placement (A.P.) course

vocational skills

language arts

penmanship

literary level

sibling n

tracking system

extracurricular activities

vacation

recessт n

2. Study the word and phase list you will need to discuss the text.

to have a dual commitment

to enter the work force

toьofferьadvancedьclasses/scholarships

to be committed to

to run all-day programs

to be in session

a half-day session

to identify colours

parental involvement

compulsory school attendance laws

to be introduced to the first school setting

drug abuse

to earn college credit

socialjjjadvancement

3. Here are a few British words and expressions to describe the British school. Say what terms in American English render similar notions.

primary school

secondary school

class, form

pupil

headteacher

vacation

tojjjadmitjjjtojjjschool

4. Here are a few words which describe educational realia in both British and American English. Explain the difference of usage.

grammar school

grade

public school

graduateт n,т v

text 3. HIGHER AND FURTHER EDUCATION IN

GREAT BRITAIN

About one-third of British school-leavers receive post-school education. About twenty per cent of l8- and 19-year-olds enter full-time course (degree or other advanced courses higher than A level). These courses are provided in universities, polytechnics, Scottish central institutions, colleges of higher (HE) and further (FE) education, and technical, art and agricultural colleges.

Full-time courses normally also include “sandwich” courses in which
the period of full-time study in college is broken by a period, or periods, of industrial training. thus, a four-year course might consist of the first two years in college, followed by a year in industry and a final year in college.

In addition, there is a great number of part-time students (3.2 million in 1996) of whom half a million were released from work with pay by their employers, normally for one full day a week or the equivalent in half-days.

Higher education in Britain is provided by universities, polytechnics and colleges of higher education which offer courses leading to a degree.

In the year of 2000 there were seventy-two universities in Britain. They fall into four broad categories: the ancient English foundations, the ancient Scottish ones, the “redbrick” universities, and the “plate-glass” ones. They are all private institutions, receiving direct grants from central government.

Oxford and Cambridge, founded in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries respectively, are easily the most famous of Britain’s universities. Today “Oxbridge”, as the two together are known, educate less than one tenth of Britain’s total university student population. But they continue to attract many of the best brains, and to mesmerise a greater number, partly on account of their prestige but also on account of the seductive beauty of many of their buildings and surroundings.

Both universities grew gradually, as federations of independent colleges most of which were founded in the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In both universities, however, new colleges have been established, for example Green College, Oxford (1979) and Robinson College, Cambridge (1977).

Today the population of Oxford, the older of the two, is about 115,000, of whom approximately 14,400 are university students (about 72% of them undergraduates). The University has no campus per se, but consists of
a federation of 36 independent colleges and five “halls”. For its part,
the University provides central libraries, laboratories and services; meets
a major part of the total bill for academic salaries; establishes the staffs of
the various faculties and through them prescribes the curricula, conducts examinations and awards degrees. It also publishes the schedule of lectures to be given each term by professors, tutors and eminent visiting academics.
The colleges, on the other hand, choose their own students and provide them with tutors (known as “dons” from the Latin dominus), pay for the upkeep of their own buildings and maintain their own libraries, sports teams, traditions and specialities, and their own, sometimes very considerable, financial resources. Colleges are relatively small – St Anne’s for example, has the most undergraduates and Corpus Christi the fewest.

Attendance at lectures in Oxford and Cambridge is not obligatory.
The basis of tuition is the tutorial, for which students are required to meet with their tutor once or twice a week, individually, or perhaps with one or two other students for every tutorial, a student in the arts or social sciences will prepare
a written essay in which a case must be argued. The system, which builds on strong motivation and encourages independent thought and work, is
the hallmark of Oxbridge education. Although traditionally renowned for
the study of the arts, Oxbridge are now also two of the world’s great scientific universities (over 40% of their students pursue degrees in science). Tutorials for the sciences may involve essays or working through problems with one’s tutor, but students must also spend long hours on practical work in the laboratories.

Oxford and Cambridge demand outstanding talents in their students, yet they are no longer an exclusive preserve of the social elite. Today over forty per cent of their students arrive from state-funded schools. The ratio of applicants to available places is about 3:1. Nevertheless, although now open to all according to intellectual ability, Oxbridge retains its exclusive, narrow and spell–binding culture. Together with the public school system, it creates
a narrow social and intellectual channel from which the nation’s leaders are almost exclusively drawn.

The problem is not the quality of education offered either in
the independent schools or Oxbridge. The problem is cultural. Can the products of such exclusive establishments remain closely in touch with the remaining
95 per cent of the population? If the expectation is that Oxbridge, particularly, will dominate the controlling positions in the state and economy, is the country ignoring equal talent which does not have the Oxbridge label?

Scotland boasts four ancient universities: Glasgow, Edinburgh, St.Andrews and Aberdeen, all founded in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In the Scottish lowlands greater value was placed on education during
the sixteenth and later centuries than in much of England. These universities were created with strong links with the ancient universities of continental Europe, and followed their longer and broader course of studies. Even today, Scottish universities provide four-year undergraduate courses, compared with the usual three-year courses in England and Wales.

In the nineteenth century many “civic”, or “redbrick” universities were established to respond to the greatly increased demand for educated people as
a result of the Industrial Revolution and the expansion of Britain’s overseas empire. Many of these were sited in the industrial centres, for example Birmingham, Manchester, Nottingham, Newcastle, Liverpool and Bristol.

They were based more on the mass lecture system than were Oxford and Cambridge. Today apart from lecture courses the teaching in most British universities is done in laboratories or in tutorial groups for three or four students, or seminars for about ten.

Out of this group London University became especially renowned. It was established in l836 by the union of two colleges: University College and King’s College. Later many other colleges, schools and institutes were added, and London University is now the largest in Britain. It is the only University which awards external degrees.

With the expansion of higher education in the 1960s many more “plate-glass” universities were established, some named after counties or regions rather than old cities, for example Sussex, Kent, East Anglia and Strathclyde. After some initial enthusiasm for them, they had become less popular by
the 1980s than the older institutions.

There is also a highly successful Open University, which provides every person in Britain with the opportunity to study for a degree, without leaving their home. It is particularly designed for adults who regret missed opportunities earlier. It conducts learning through correspondence, radio and television, and also through local study centres.

Nearly a quarter of all adult part-time students follow its degree courses on radio and television. Most course work is run by part-time tutors (many of whom are lecturers at other universities); these are scattered around the country, and meet students to discuss their work at regular intervals. There are short residential summer courses. The students are of all ages, some of them retired. They may spread their studies over several years, and choose their courses to suit their individual needs and preferences.

Polytechnics in England and Wales provide a range of higher education courses, up to doctoral studies. (In Scotland there are similar institutions.) But their real purpose was to fill the gap between university and further education work, providing an environment in which equal value was placed on academic and practical work, particularly in order to improve Britain’s technical and technological ability. The polytechnics produce excellent quality, but by aspiring to provide the same kind of courses as universities, they have not entirely succeeded in their purpose.

Polytechnics are funded in a similar way to universities Polys’ hope this will give them an opportunity to enjoy equality and equal standing with universities. In recent years many of them were upgraded to university level.

Each university course has a quota of new students which ought not to be exceeded, so entry to each course is in effect competitive. Good “A”-level results in at least two subjects are necessary to get a place at a University. However, good exam passes alone are not enough. Universities choose their students after interviews, and competition for entry to the best institutions is really fierce.

A central clearing house for admissions, the Universities Central Council on Admissions (commonly known as UCCA), helps to cope with
the excessively complex problem of multiple applications. Anyone wanting to enter a university gets an application form from UCCA, on which an applicant may enter applications for up to five courses in different universities.

All universities issue prospectuses describing their courses.

Polytechnics have much the same entry system.

Undergraduate courses normally take three years of full-time study, although a number of subjects take longer, including medicine, architecture and foreign languages (where courses include a year abroad). The academic year is divided into three eight or ten-week terms and at the end of each term most undergraduates “go down” for the vacation. On completing the course of three or four years the undergraduates sit their “finals” or degree examinations and are awarded their “first” degree that of Bachelor of Arts or of Science (BA or BS).

The bachelor degree is normally classed, with about 5 per cent normally gaining a First, about 30 per cent gaining an Upper Second, perhaps 40 per cent gaining a Lower Second, and the balance getting either a Third, a Pass or failing.

There are various post-graduate degrees. On completion of post-graduate work, usually a one- or two-year course involving some original research students may obtain Master of Arts or of Science (MA or MSc) degree. Some students continue to complete a three-year period of original research for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). Depending on the degree they are studying for the students are called undergraduates, graduates and post-graduates.

Over ninety per cent of full-time students receive grants from their Local Education Authorities to assist with their tuition. In 1990 the government, while still providing tuition fees, froze the grant for cost of living expenses and set up a new system whereby students were to take out loans to help meet their living costs. The loans are designed to supplement the grant and are available to UK students attending undergraduate and diploma level courses of at least one year’s duration.

It is very unusual for university students to live at home, and parents usually approve of the move, and see it as a necessary part of becoming
an adult. Most freshmen (or freshers) live in a Hall of Residence on or near
the college campus, although they may move out into a rented room in their second or third year, or share a house with friends (they may say that they live in “lodgings” or “digs” then).

Full-time and part-time students in universities, polytechnics and colleges are members of Students’ Union, which is part of the National Union of Students. The Students’ Union (S.U.) is a welfare organization which provides help, information and advice on aspects of University and student life. It holds guides, leaflets, magazines and maps, it provides information on travel and insurance, sells books, provides refreshments, organizes entertainment and other recreational activities and lends help and advice on any matter it can.
The Students Union normally funds clubs and societies of all kind which are typical of undergraduate life at a university. There may be social clubs and
a host of religious, philosophical, political, historical, artistic, musical and literary clubs.

Further education is education in technical colleges, further education colleges, colleges of art and various other institutions which do not award degrees. The term describes a widely differing set of institutions.

The majority of the lower level courses, relating mainly to apprenticeship schemes and qualifications are provided in Colleges of Further Education or Technical Colleges. Middle level courses are also offered in Technical Colleges with those having a good share of more advanced work being called “Colleges of Technology”. Polytechnics may have both degree and non-degree courses. But there are a number of specialized colleges such as the London College of Printing and the National College of Agricultural Engineering. Very few of
the broad divisions here are clear cut, there is much overlapping.

One of the major areas of “overlap” that has occurred during the past ten years or so has been between the school system and Further Education. There has been a growing provision of “Sixth Form” level studies in Colleges of Further Education and Technical Colleges during this period and almost all of the “non-advanced” technical colleges now offer a broad spread of subjects for the GCE Advanced Level (“A” level) examinations. Many sixth form students seem to prefer the more adult atmosphere of the Technical College to that of
the school. A few Local Education Authorities have decided, partly because of this existing trend and partly for reasons of economy, that all the post-sixteen education in certain areas – both technical and academic – should be amalgamated in one establishment; such amalgamated institutions are called “Tertiary Colleges”.

Whatever the type of establishment and its range of educational provision, most of the local inhabitants will probably refer to it as “the Tech”. The Tech has played an important part in British educational history and its role will be no less important in the future.

Reading Comprehension Check

1. What is the difference between higher and further education?

2. What can you say about the role of Oxford and Cambridge in modern Britain?

3. What degrees are awarded in British higher education?

4. How are British school leavers admitted to universities and colleges?

5. What are the tasks of the Open University?

6. What kinds of financial aid are available to British students?

7. What is Students’ Union?

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Go through the list of educational terms and realia. Be able to explain
the notions they describe.

education n

training n

applicant n

the Universities Central Council

on Admissions (UCCA)

prospectus

a full-time course/student

a part-time course/student

a sandwich course

a residential course

a degree/non-degree course

freshman n (fresher)

undergraduate n

graduate n

post-graduate n

non-graduate n

lecturer n

professor n

tutor n

tutorial n

don n

the sciences

the arts

a civic university

a red-brick university

a plate-glass university

campus n

hall of residence (hall)

lodgings (coll. digs)

finals n

degree examinations

Bachelor of Arts (B.A.)

Master of Arts (M.A.)

Master of Science (M.S.)

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

external degree

grant n

scholarship n

loan n

Students’ Union

the National Union of Students

apprenticeship n

polytechnics (polys)

optional subject

compulsory subject

the Open University

further education college

technical college

college of technology

tertiaryjjjcollegej(thejjjTech)

2. Study the phrase list you will need to discuss the text.

to award degrees

mass lecture system

to study/read for a degree

to enjoy equal standing

to upgrade to a … level

to enter a course

to go down for a vacation

to take out loans

to overlap

to provide a course

to release from work

to fall into categories

the ancient foundations

to prescribe the curricula

to issue a prospectus

to study by correspondence

distancejjjlearning

text 4. Higher Education in the USA

“The more you learn, the more you earn“, said the pop singer Cyndi Lauper as she accepted her high school diploma – at the age of 35! Although Cyndi made it without a high school degree, most people don’t. In the USA today, about 75% of jobs require some education or technical training beyond high school. The lowest wage earners in the USA are those without high school degrees; college graduates out earn those without a college education; people with master’s degrees outearn those with only a bachelor’s: and the highest incomes of all are earned by people with advanced professional or academic degrees. These generalizations explain why the majority of young Americans go to college. However, despite the average, more diplomas don’t always mean more money. Many skilled blue-collar workers, salespeople, business executives, and entrepreneurs outearn college professors and scientific researchers. And great athletes and entertainers outearn everyone else!

But college education is not only preparation for a career; it is also (or should be) preparation for life. In addition to courses in their major field of study, most students have time to take elective courses. They may take classes that help to understand more about human nature, government, the arts, sciences, or whatever else may interest them.

Going to college, either full-time or part-time, is becoming the automatic next step after high school. Today, more than half of American high school graduates enroll in college. But recent high school graduates no longer dominate the college campuses. Today it is quite common for adults of all ages to come back to college either for career advancement or personal growth.

American faith in the value of education is exemplified by the rising number of Americans who have at least a bachelor’s degree. About 20% of Americans are college graduates. However, among younger adults and working people, the percentage is at least 25%, much higher than in most other major nations. In the USA, a college education is not viewed as a privilege reserved for the wealthy or the academically talented. Virtually everyone who wants to attend college can do so.

Undergraduate education

American colleges and universities vary a great deal in size. Some colleges have student bodies of just a few hundred, while some state universities serve more than 100,000 students on several different campuses. At smaller schools, students generally get to know their classmates and professors better and are less likely to feel lonely and confused. Larger schools offer a greater selection of courses and more activities to attend and participate in. When selecting a college, the student must consider which type of environment best suits his or her needs.

There are two main categories of institutions of higher learning: public and private. All schools get money from tuition and from private contributors. However, public schools are supported primarily by the state they’re located in. On the other hand, private schools do not receive state funding. As a result, tuition is generally lower at public schools, especially for permanent residents of that state.

Schools can also be grouped by the types of programs and degrees they offer. The three major groups are community colleges, four-year colleges, and universities. Community colleges offer only the first two years of undergraduate studies (the freshman and sophomore years). The number of these schools has grown very rapidly in the past 40 years. In 1950, there were about 600 in
the USA. Today, there are about l,300, and they serve about five million students (about 55% of all college freshmen). Most community colleges are public schools, supported by local and/or state funds. They serve two general types of students: (a) those taking the first two years of college before transferring to a four-year school for their third and fourth (junior and senior) years; and (b) those enrolled in one- or two-year job training programs. Community colleges offer technical training in many areas of study, such as health services, office skills, computer science, drafting, police work, and automotive repair.

Newcomers to the USA often ask, “Exactly what is the difference between a college and a university?” Some assume that the difference is merely one of size, but it is much more than that. A university is bigger than a college because the scope of its programs is much greater. A university offers a wider range of undergraduate programs and also offers graduate studies. Part of
the responsibility of a university is to encourage its faculty and its graduate students to do research that will advance human knowledge. Colleges, on the other hand, are primarily undergraduate schools with no commitment to train students for research.

Many excellent colleges are liberal arts schools, which means that they offer studies in the humanities, languages, mathematics, social sciences, and sciences. Liberal arts colleges generally do not offer degrees in engineering, business, journalism, education, and many other specific vocations that
a student can train for at a university. However, students at a liberal art colleges (like college students elsewhere) still major in a specific area of knowledge.

Some colleges specialize in training students for one particular occupation (as agricultural colleges and teacher’s colleges do). Many specialized undergraduate institutions that are not called colleges also provide higher education in one specific occupation – for example, conservatories for music students, seminaries for students of religion, and fine arts schools for artists. For those wishing to prepare for military careers, the United States government maintains four special academies.

At the college level, the academic year is about nine months long (usually from September until early June or from late August until May). After completing four academic years with acceptable grades in an approved course of study, the student earns a bachelor’s degree. Some students complete college in less than four years by attending summer sessions. At most colleges,
the academic year is divided into either two or three terms, excluding
the summer session. College grades, from highest to lowest, run A, B, C, D, and F. An F is a failing grade; if a student receives an F in a particular course, he or she does not get credit for having taken the course. College students must maintain at least a low C average in order to remain in school.

Graduate education

American universities offer three main categories of graduate degrees. In most fields of specialization, a master’s degree can be earned by one or two academic years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree. A Ph.D. degree (Doctor of Philosophy) usually takes at least three years beyond the master’s. To earn
a Ph.D. in almost any field, generally the student must pass oral and written examinations in his or her speciality, produce a long research paper which makes an original contribution to his or her field of study, and pass reading examinations in one or two foreign languages. There are also graduate professional degrees in medicine, dentistry, and law, among other fields.

In recent years, the graduate student population has become much more diversified than even before. It now includes more women, foreign students, minority group members, older students, and part-time students. Also,
the variety of degree programs offered has expanded greatly. Today’s graduate students can choose from about l,000 types of master’s degrees and about 60 types of doctorates.

Life on an American campus

A college community is an interesting and lively place, students become involved in many different activities – extracurricular, religious, social, and athletic. Among the extracurricular activities are college newspapers, musical organizations, dramatic clubs, and political groups. Many religious groups have their own meeting places, where services and social activities can be held. Most colleges have a student union, where students can get together for lunch, study sessions, club meetings, and socializing.

At many schools, campus life revolves around fraternities (social and, in some cases, residential clubs for men) and sororities (similar clubs for women). These organizations exist on more than 500 campuses. The best known are national groups with chapters at schools throughout the country. Their names are Greek letters, such as Alpha Delta Phi.

Athletics is an important part of life on most campuses. Most coeducational and men’s schools belong to an athletic league. The teams within the league play against each other, aiming for the league championship. Football is the college sport which arouses the most national interest. Games, complete with student marching bands and entertainment, are major productions. Other sports – particularly basketball, swimming, and track – are also pursued with enthusiasm. Some schools have competitive tennis, skiing, sailing, wrestling, soccer, baseball, and golf.

Is it fun to be a college student in the United States? For most students, the college years are exciting and rewarding, but they are certainly not easy or carefree. Just about all college students face the pressure of making important career decisions and some anxiety about examinations and grades. Many students have additional problems – too little money, not enough time for sleep, and a feeling of loneliness because they’re living far from home. Still, many Americans look back on their college years as the happiest time of their lives. When students live on campus in college dormitories, they make very close friendships. Sometimes a student is fortunate enough to find a member of
the school’s faculty that takes a personal interest in his or her academic career. Some students, when returning to their college campus in the fall, feel that they are coming back to their second home. Many graduates feel great loyalty to their former schools and, throughout their lives, they cheer for their school’s athletic teams and donate money to help the institution expand and modernize. American graduates refer to the school they attended as their alma mater
(a Latin expression meaning fostering mother). This expression indicates how much the college experience means to students, and how much they feel their school contributed to their lives.

Financing a college education in the usa

College costs very quite a bit, depending upon the type of school attended. For example, at many of the more expensive private schools, annual costs (including tuition, room, board, books, travel to and from home, and other expenses) may exceed $20.000. Of course, public universities are much cheaper. At these schools, tuition is significantly higher for out-of state students than it is for those whose permanent residence is within that state. Tuition at community colleges averages about half the in-state cost of public, four-year colleges and universities.

For those that cannot afford the cost of a college education, financial aid is the answer Students in the USA receive about $20 billion per year in financial aid. There are three main types of financial aid: (a) scholarships (grants), which are gifts that students do not repay; (b) loans to students and/or their parents; and (c) student employment (work/study), a part-time job which the school gives the student for the academic year. Most financial aid is need-based; that is, only students who need the money receive it. Financial assistance to outstanding students who do not need the money (commonly called merit-based aid) is limited.

The funds for all of this aid come from three main sources – the federal government, state governments, and private contributors. Every American college and university has a financial aid office to help students find out what kind of aid they might be eligible for and to assist them in completing
the complicated application forms. Aliens who are permanent residents in
the USA are eligible for government assistance, but foreign students (1-20 visa students) are not.

Difficulties in making ends meet create serious problems for many students. Some – especially those with responsibilities to help support a family – try to work full-time while carrying a full academic course load. They forget to leave themselves time to eat, sleep, and simply live. These students soon discover that they are trying to handle too much, and that an exhausted person performs poorly both on the job and in the classroom. College counsellors can help students who need to work out a plan to feed the family and attend college at the same time.

Lifelong learning

In the USA, the education of adults goes on in many different places for many different reasons. At least 25 million adults (about l3% of the adult population) are enrolled in classes, nearly all as part-time students. Most of these classes are not for college credit but for knowledge that the students can use on the job, for job advancement, to pursue a hobby, or for personal growth. Programs commonly called adult education or continuing education are operated by many high schools and community colleges. In recent years, private learning centers have also opened up, offering inexpensive classes for adults in a wide variety of skills and activities. A typical catalogue might offer classes in how to cook a Chinese dinner, invest in the stock market, improve your spelling, make friends, or even give your partner a message. Many adults enjoy taking classes where they can learn something new and also meet people who share this new interest.

Many more classes are taken at the workplace. Hospitals, businesses, and museums, for example, offer courses to help employees improve job-related skills. Some companies, rather than operate their own classes, will offer to pay the tuition if an employee goes back to school to learn a skill that the company needs. In the USA, where technology rapidly makes some skills obsolete and new ones essential, workers at all levels realize that life-long learning is necessary. Even professional people – doctors, teachers, accountants, dentists, and engineers – continue to study to keep up with new techniques in their fields.

Education, whether it occurs on the college campus or elsewhere, is
an important element in the life of an American adult. The American dream of becoming important in one’s career and financially successful is most often achieved through education.

Access to Education

The American educational system is based on the idea that as many people as possible should have access to as much education as possible. This fact alone distinguishes the U.S. system from most others, since in most others the objective is as much to screen people out as it is to keep them in. The US system has no standardised examinations whose results systematically prevent students from going on to higher levels of study, as the British and many other systems do. Through secondary school and sometimes in post-secondary institutions as well, the American system tries to accommodate students even if their academic aspirations and aptitudes are not high, even if they are physically (and in some cases mentally) handicapped, and even if their native language is not English.

The idea that as many people as possible should have as much education as possible, is, of course, an outcome of the Americans’ assumptions about equality among people. These assumptions do not mean that everyone has
an equal opportunity to enter Harvard, Stanford, or other highly competitive post-secondary institutions. Admission to such institutions is generally restricted to the most academically able. The less able can usually matriculate in a post-secondary institution, but one of lower quality.

Well-rounded people

The American educational system seeks to turn out “well-rounded people”. Such people might have specialised knowledge in some area, but they are all expected to have a general acquaintance with many disciplines. Having passed through a system that requires them to study some mathematics, some English, some humanities, and some social science (and perhaps a foreign language), they presumably have an array of interests and can understand information from many fields of study. Thus, specialisation in the American system comes later than it does in many other systems. Students are required to take courses that they themselves might not be interested in and that might not have any apparent relationship to their career aspirations.

Although not an “ideal”, there is a final sentiment that must be taken into account as one tries to understand the American educational system. That sentiment is anti-intellectualism. Most Americans are suspicious of theorising and “intellectualizing”. They want to see practical results from time and money spent. Secondary school and university graduates are expected to be well-rounded to an extent, but not to the extent that they cannot do anything “useful”. Americans are unimpressed by most learning that is done just for the sake of learning. They have no general reverence for university teachers who live in
an “ivory tower” that is divorced from the real world.

Social forces affecting american education

A few aspects of the social context in which American education operates are worth mentioning. The first has to do with the social status or degree of respect ascribed to people who are involved in education.

American teachers (that term usually applies to people who teach in kindergarten through grade 12, the final grade in secondary school) do not enjoy high status in the society. Respondents to a recent Gallup Poll placed teachers well below physicians, clergymen, and bankers in terms of their prestige or status in the community. Judges, lawyers, and public school principals were also rated above teachers. Funeral directors and local political office-holders were seen as having nearly as much prestige or status as teachers did. Teachers are not well paid. Their working conditions are usually less comfortable than those of workers in many other areas. They are not as well respected, as are people who actually “do” something rather than “just” teach.

Nor are college and university professors generally held in the high regard they are in many other countries. There are some exceptions – mainly those who have made particularly noteworthy contributions to science (not
the humanities, usually, because the humanities are not “practical”) – but professors are often viewed as people who are teaching because they are not capable of doing anything else.

Advantages and disadvantages

From what has been said above, many of the American educational system’s advantages and disadvantages become clear.

The system provides formal education for a relatively large portion of
the population, but the quality of that education is not as high as it might be if
the system were more selective. (Most experts agree that people who earn Ph.D. degrees in the United States are as well prepared to work in their disciplines as are people who earn Ph.D.s in other systems. Below the Ph.D. level, though, many systems offer more depth in students’ chosen disciplines than
the American one does.

The system’s decentralisation serves to insulate educational institutions from national political entanglements and give citizens some voice in what happens in their local schools. Schools can modify their curricula to accommodate needs and conditions that pertain only to their own areas. On the other hand, the decentralization makes it relatively easy for an out-spoken and committed minority in a given community to enroll local schools in controversy. The decentralization also makes it possible for particular schools to maintain low standards if they wish or feel compelled to do so.

“Well-rounded” people, such as those the American system hopes to produce, stand a better chance of becoming “good citizens” (as the Americans use that term) since they have a general familiarity with many topics and can keep themselves informed about matters of public policy. On the other hand, well-rounded people might not be as well equipped to begin working in specific occupations because they have not learned as much in school about specific areas of endeavor as have students whose systems permitted earlier and more intensive specialization.

The American educational system, like any other, is integrally related to the values and assumptions of the society that surrounds it. American ideas about equality, individualism, and freedom underlie the educational system. Whatever its advantages and disadvantages, the system will retain its current general characteristics as long as the values and assumptions that predominate in the surrounding society continue to hold away.

Reading Comprehension Check

1. Why do many Americans want to receive college or university education?

2. What institutions provide post-school education in the USA?

3. What are some differences between a) a community college and a four-year college; b) a four-year college and a university?

4. What degrees are available at liberal arts colleges?

5. Do American public colleges and universities charge tuition?

6. What activities do American students often become involved in during their undergraduate years?

7. How do you understand the task of American higher education to produce “well-rounded” people?

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Go through the list of American educational terms. Be able to explain
the notions they describe.

full time student/work

part-time student/education

to enroll in college

campus

to live on campus

community college

four-year college

liberal arts college (school)

the freshman (year)

a fresher n

the sophomore (year)

the junior (year)

the senior (year)

graduate student

elective course

major n, v, adj

minor n, adj

academic year

failing/passing grade

student union

fraternity

sorority

chapter

dormitory

the fall/spring semester

alma mater

in-state student

out-of-state student

public/private college

scholarship

loan n

adult/continuing education

matriculate v

creditт n

2. Study the word and phase list you will need to discuss the text.

beyond high school

to go to college

career/job advancement

personal growth

to exemplify

to offer graduate studies/degrees

to earn a degree

to get credit

to attend summer sessions

need-based financial aid

merit-based aid

to be eligible for (aid)

alien n

to improve job-related skills

to keep up with new techniques in one’s field

access to (ex. education)

to underlie the system

tovholdsway

UNIT 3

MULTILINGUALISM AND MULTINATIONALISM

Text 1

J.Read, M.Wright, I.Conway

Francis Favereau is still reeling from the success of his Breton-French dictionary. With only 200 copies of an initial print-run of l,700 left on
the shelves, the l.9 kg tome – the largest of its kind – is fast selling out and publishers Skol Vreizh are gearing up for a second run.

For a language that has long been considered “threatened” – it was banned in public for most of the 19^th century and was given only partial recognition as late as 1951 – the dictionary has been widely welcomed.

First to order copies of Geriadur Meur brezhoneg ar vreman were
the region’s 22 bilingual “immersion” schools, where children are taught solely in Breton until the age of eight, after which they learn in both languages.

Now a pocket-size Petit Favereau is being edited for publication at
the end of the year. Between 600,000 and 700,000 people out of the region’s two million-strong population understand Breton. As many as 200,000 people speak it daily.

According to Favereau: “There is a decline in the number of people speaking Breton in their daily lives because of the demise of traditional speakers, but there is a massive resurgence of Breton sentiment and interest in the language and culture”.

Favereau puts this down to an increase in the number of “new Bretons” – people who as children were not taught the language but want their offspring to learn it. Some 80 per cent of Bretons are in favour of the language being taught in all Brittany’s schools. Parents have even gone on a hunger strike in their efforts to get Breton put on the curriculum.

Mounting frustration and anger felt by many Bretons reached a peak last year when the French government joined the British in refusing to sign
the Euro