Classification of Verbs

Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predica­tive functions of the sentence, i.e. the functions of establishing the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality. The complexity of the verb is inherent not only in the intricate structure of its grammatical categories, but also in its various subclass divisions, as well as in its falling into two sets of forms profoundly different from each other: the finite set and the non-finite set (verbals, or verbids).

The categorial semantics of the verb is process presented dynamically. This general processual meaning is embedded in the semantics of all the verbs. It is proved by the verb valency and the syntactic function of the predicate.

The processual categorial meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (its subject) and, in cases of the objective verb, the recipient of the action (its object); it also determines its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action.

In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the functions of the verb-predicate, expressing the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice, and mood.

From the point of view of their outward structure, verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building, as well as by the formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories.

The grammatical categories which find formal expression in the outward structure of the verb are, first, the category of finitude di­viding the verb into finite and non-finite forms (this category has a lexico-grammatical force); second, the categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.

The class of verbs falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features. On the upper level of this division two unequal sets are identified: the set of verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs) which are opposed to the set of verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional and function­al verbs). The set of notional verbs is derivationally open. The sec­ond set is derivationally closed, it includes limited subsets of verbs characterized by individual relational properties. On the lower level of division each set can be subdivided into numerous subsets accord­ing to their relevant features.

Notional verbs are classified on the basis of three main principles: the relation of the subject of the verb to the process denoted by the verb, the aspective verbal semantics, the verbal combinability with other language units.

According to the first criterion, all notional verbs are divided into two sets: actional and statal. This division is grammatically relevant since it explains the difference between the actional and statal verbs in their attitude towards the denotation of the action in progress. Actional verbs express the action performed by the subject, i.e. they present the subject as an active doer. Statal verbs, unlike their sub­class counterparts, denote the state of their subject, i.e. they either give the subject the characteristic of the inactive recipient of some outward activity, or else express the mode of its existence.

Aspective verbal semantics (the second criterion) exposes the in­ner character of the process denoted by the verb. It represents the process as durative (continual), iterative (repeated), terminate (con­cluded), interminate (not concluded), instantaneous (momentary), ingressive (starting), overcompleted (developed to the extent of su­perfluity), undercompleted (not developed to its full extent), and the like. According to the aspective verbal semantics, two major sub­classes of notional verbs are singled out: limitive and unlimitive. The verbs of the first order present a process as potentially limited. The verbs of the second order present a process as not limited by any border point. The demarcation line between the two aspective verbal subclasses is not rigidly fixed, the actual differentiation between them being in fact rather loose. Still, the opposition between limitive and unlimitive verbal sets does exist in English. This division of verbs has an unquestionable grammatical relevance, which is expressed, among other things, in peculiar correlation of these subclasses with the categorial aspective forms of the verbs (indefinite, continuous, perfect). It also reveals the difference in the expression of aspective distinc­tions in English and in Russian. The English lexical aspect differs radically from the Russian aspect. In terms of semantic properties, the English lexical aspect expresses a potentially limited or unlimited process, whereas the Russian aspect expresses the actual conclusion (the perfective, or terminative aspect) or non-conclusion (the imperfective, or non-terminative aspect) of the process in question. In terms of systemic properties, the two English lexical aspect varieties, unlike their Russian absolutely rigid counterparts, are but loosely distinguished and easily reducible. In accord with these characteristics, both theEnglish limitive verbs and unlimitive verbs may correspond alternately either to the Russian perfective verbs or imperfective verbs, depending on the contextual uses.

The syntactic valency of the verb falls into two cardinal types: obligatory and optional. The obligatory valency is such as must necessarily be realized for the sake of the grammatical completion of the syntactic construction. The subjective and the direct objective valen­cies of the verb are obligatory. The optional valency is such as is not necessarily realized in grammatically complete constructions: this type of valency may or may not be realized depending on the concrete information conveyed by the utterance. Most of the adverbial modifiers are optional parts of the sentence, so in terms of valency the adverbial valency of the verb is mostly optional.

Semi-notional and functional verbs are united in the set of the verbs characterized by partial nominative value. To this set of verbs refer several subdivisions of verbs: auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, link verbs, and semi-notional verbid introducer verbs. All semi-function­al and purely functional verbs function as markers of predication showing the connection between the nominative content of the sen­tence and reality.

1. Categories of Person and Number

The finite forms of the verb make up a very complex and intricate system; its intricacy is caused by the fact that they are directly connected with the structure of the sentence, the finite verb functioning as its predication centre.

The morphological study of the English finite verb includes the study of its categories, those of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.

Person and number are treated by scholars as closely related cat­egories. In their treatment two approaches are contrasted: tradition­al and modern.

In accord with the traditional approach to these two categories, scholars point out to the existence in English of three persons and two numbers.

In modern linguistic works on the problem it is also stressed that the categories of person and number are closely interwoven in English and should be considered together. At the same time it is particularly emphasized that these categories are specific because they don't con­vey the inherently "verbal" semantics. It means that the categories of person and number have a "reflective" character: the personal and numerical semantics in the finite verb is the reflection in the verb lexeme of the personal and numerical semantics of the subject referent.

The semantic and formal analysis of the person-number forms of the verb shows that in the strictly categorial sense one should speak of personal pronouns set consisting of six different forms of blended person-number nature - three in the singular and three in the plural. The intermixed character of the numerical and personal forms of the finite forms of the verb finds its expression both at the formal and functional levels of analysis in different subsystems of verbs. The pe­culiarity of expressing person-number distinctions in the English verb lies in the deficiency of the finite regular verb for there exists the only positive person-number mark of the finite regular verb - the mor­pheme of the third person singular. This deficient system cannot and does not exist in the language by itself: in fact, the verbal person-number system only backs up the person-number system of the sub­ject. Due to it the combination and strict correlation of the English finite verb with the subject is obligatory not only syntactically but also categorially.

Category of Tense

The category of tense is considered to be an immanent grammat­ical category which means that the finite verb form always expresses time distinctions.

The category of tense finds different interpretations with different scholars. Thus, in traditional linguistics grammatical time is often represented as a three-form category consisting of the "linear" past, present, and future forms. The future-in-the-past does not find its place in the scheme based on the linear principle, hence, this system is considered to be deficient, not covering all lingual data.

At the same time linguists build up new systems of tenses in order to find a suitable place in them for future-in-the past. Nevertheless, many of such schemes are open to criticism for their inconsistency which finds its expression in the fact that some of them deny the inde­pendent status of future tenses while others exclude from the analysis future-in-the-past forms.

The said inconsistency can be overcome if we accept the idea that in English there exist two tense categories.

The first category - the category of primary time - expresses a direct retrospective evaluation of the time of the process denoted, due to which the process receives an absolutive time characteristic. This category is based upon the opposition of "the past tense" and "the present tense", the past tense being its strong member.

The second tense category is the category of "prospective time ", it is based upon the opposition of "after-action" and "non-after-ac­tion", the marked member being the future tense. The category of prospect is relative by nature which means that it characterizes the action from the point of view of its correlation with some other ac­tion. As the future verbal form may be relative either to the present time, or to the past time included in non-future, the English verb acquires two different future forms: the future of the present and the future of the past. It means that the future of the past is doubly strong expressing the strong members of the category of primary time and the category of prospect.

The category of primary time is subjected to neutralization and transposition, transposition being more typical. The vivid cases of transposition are the "historical present" and the "Preterite of Mod­esty". As for the category of prospect, it is often neutralized; neutral­ization can be of two types: syntactically optional and syntactically obligatory.

Category of Aspect

Grammatical aspective meanings form a variable grammatical category which is traditionally associated with the opposition of con­tinuous and non-continuous forms of the verb. Yet, one can find a great divergence of opinions on the problem of the English aspect. The main difference lies in the interpretation of the categorial seman­tics of the oppositional members - continuous and indefinite forms: the categorial meaning of the continuous -form is usually defined as the meaning of duration, while the interpretation of the categorial semantics of the Indefinite form causes controversy (the indefinite form may be interpreted as having no aspective meaning (I.P. Ivanova), as a form having a vague content (G.N. Vorontsova), as a form stressing the fact of the performance of the action (A.I. Smirnitsky). In Modern Linguistics A.I. Smirnitsky's interpretation of the cate­gorial semantics of the indefinite form is widely accepted.

In theoretical grammar the interpretation of perfect / non-perfect verb-forms also refers to disputable questions. Some linguists inter­pret the opposition of perfect / non-perfect forms as aspective (O. Jespersen, I.P. Ivanova, G.N. Vorontsova), others - as the op­position of tense forms (H. Sweet, G.O. Curme, A. Korsakov). A.I. Smirnitsky was the first to prove that perfect and non-perfect make up a special, self-sufficient, category which he called the "cate­gory of time correlation"; this viewpoint is shared now by a vast majority of linguists.

Developing A.I. Smirnitsky's views on the categorial semantics of perfect / non-perfect forms, we can come to the conclusion that in English there exist two aspective categories: the category of develop­ment (based on the opposition of continuous and non-continuous forms) and the category of retrospective coordination (based on the opposition of perfect and non-perfect forms).

The perfect form has a mixed categorial meaning: it expresses both retrospective time coordination of the process and the connec­tion of the prior action with a time-limit reflected in a subsequent event. The recognition of the two aspect categories also enables one to give a sound interpretation to the perfect continuous forms: they must be treated as forms having marks in both the aspect categories.

The opposition of continuous and non-continuous forms can be neutralized and transponized. Besides, in the category of development verbs which are usually not used in continuous forms can be subjected to the process of reverse transposition, e.g.: Were you wanting my help?

As for the opposition of perfect and non-perfect forms, it can under­go only the process of neutralization, transposition being alien to it.

Category of Voice

The category of voice occupies a peculiar place in the system of verbal categories because it reflects the direction of the process as re­gards the participants in the situation denoted by a syntactic construc­tion. The passive form, being marked, expresses the reception of the action by the subject of the syntactic construction; its weak counter-member - the active form - has the meaning of "non-passivity".

In comparison with Russian, the category of voice in English has a much broader representation as not only transitive but also intran­sitive objective verbs can be used in the passive voice.

Another peculiarity of voice distinctions of English verbs con­sists in the fact that active forms often convey passive meanings.

Category of Mood

A great divergence of opinions on the question of the category of mood is caused by the fact that identical mood forms can express different meanings and different forms can express similar meanings.

The category of mood shows the relation of the nominative con­tent of the sentence towards reality. By this category the action can be presented as real, non-real, desirable, recommended, etc.

It is obvious that the opposition of the one integral form of the indic­ative and the one integral form of the subjunctive underlies the unity of the whole system of English moods. The formal mark of this opposition is the tense-retrospect shift in the subjunctive, the latter being the strong member of the opposition. The shift consists in the perfect aspect being opposed to the imperfect aspect, both turned into the relative substitutes for the absolutive past and present tenses of the indicative.

The study of the English mood reveals a certain correlation of its formal and semantic features. The subjunctive, the integral mood of unreality, presents the two sets of forms according to the structural division of verbal tenses into the present and the past. These form-sets constitute the two corresponding functional subsystems of the subjunctive, namely, the spective, the mood of attitudes, and the conditional, the mood of appraising causal-conditional relations of processes. Each of these, in its turn, falls into two systemic subsets, so that at the immediately working level of presentation we have the four subjunctive form-types identified on the basis of the strict correlation betwe­en their structure and their function: the pure spective, the modal spective, the stipulative conditional, the consective conditional: Pure spective (subjunctive 1), expressing consideration, desideration, inducement; Stipulative Conditional (Subjunctive 2), expressing unreal condition; Consective Conditional (Subjunctive 3) which expresses unreal consequence and Modal Spective (Subjunctive 4) of consideration, desideration, inducement.

The elaborated scheme clearly shows that the so-called "imperativemood" has historically coincided with Subjunctive 1.

The described system is not finished in terms of the historical development of language; on the contrary, it is in the state of making bid change. Its actual manifestations are complicated by neutralizations of formal and semantic contrasts, by fluctuating uses of the auxiliaries, of the finate "be" in the singular.

Today scholars discuss different classifications of moods in Eng­lish revealing new correlations of meaning and form in the process of expressing mood distinctions but so far a universally accepted system of moods has not been worked out. Hence our task in the objective study of language, as well as in language teaching, is to accurately register these phenomena, to explain their mechanism and systemic implications, to show the relevant tendencies of usage in terms of varying syntactic environments, topical contexts, stylistic preferences.

Do the exercises

I. Dwell upon the categorial features of the verbs in the following sentences:

a)

1. "Well, I am an honest man, though not a very rich one. I only gave 15 shillings for the bust, and I think you ought to know that before I take 18 pounds from you." (Doyle)

2. I thought you might be interested to meet Mr. Anstruther. He knows something of Belgium. He has lately been hearing news of your convent (Christie).

3. "Oh She, as thou art great be merciful, for I am now as ever thy servant to obey. " (Haggard)

4. "What is it?" she said confusedly. "What have I been saying?" "It is nothing," said Rose. "You are tired. You want to rest. We will leave you." (Christie)

b)

1. "I think, Mr. Holmes, it is time that we were leaving for Euston." "I will order a four-wheeler. In a quarter of an hour we shall be at your service." (Doyle)

2. "What he will divulge I cannot tell, but I have no doubt that your Grace could make him understand that it is to his interest to be silent. From the police point of view he will have kidnapped the boy for the purpose of ransom." (Doyle)

3. " Hast thou aught to ask me before thou goest, oh Holly?" she said, after a few moments' reflection (Haggard).

4. "Mr. Holmes!" cried Mrs. Hudson indignantly. "How many times have I said that I won't tolerate your indoor shooting?" (Hardwick)

c)

1. My future is settled. I am seeing my lawyer tomorrow as it is necessary that I should make some provision for Mervyn if I should pre-decease him which is, of course, the natural course of events (Christie).

2. "Yes, it was old Mrs. Carraway. She' s always swallowing things." (Christie)

3. " Wouldn't you like something? Some tea or some coffee perhaps?..." "No, no, not even that. We shan't be stopping very much longer." (Christie)

4. "Oh! It's lovely. It's too good for me, though. You'll be wanting it your­ self-" (Christie)

d)

1. "Well, you see, Mrs. Beresford, one needs a change -" "But you' ll be doing the same kind of work?" (Christie)

2. She picked up the fur stole. "I' m thanking you again very much – and I'm glad, too, to have something to remember Miss Fanshawe by." (Christie)

3. I wish you were coming with me (Christie).

4. Will you be wanting some sandwiches? (Christie)

5. It was a funny way to partition it (the house), I should have thought. I'd have thought it would have been easier to do it the other way (Christie).